基于消费者差异的特色均等化是义务教育未来发展的重要指向。运用因子生态分析法对大连市域范围内189所初级中学学生的问卷调查数据进行分析,提取出5个主因子并划分为5类初中教育消费者,得出大连市初中教育消费者在空间上呈现出职业的城乡分化、受教育水平的南北差异等多重分异特征。然后采用聚类分析方法和集中度指数将所研究的初中教育消费者所在学校划分为4类,即高学历高收入家庭子女学校、城市中上收入家庭子女学校、农民及外出务工人员子女学校和工人及办事人员子女学校。最后根据不同类型初中教育消费者所在学校空间上的分布特征,归纳出大连市初中教育消费者社会空间结构的圈层分布特征。

The equalization with characteristics based on consumers’ differences is an important director for developing compulsory education in following years. Factorial ecological analysis method is used to analyze the survey data of questioned students from 189 middle schools in Dalian City. Five principal factors are extracted and classified into five kinds of middle school consumers. Four kinds of middle school consumers could be divided with the hierarchical cluster analysis methods and concentration index. At last, according to the distribution characteristics of different middle school consumers, it summarized that what is the distribution characteristics of the middle school students’ social space structure in Dalian. The following conclusions can be drawn. 1) There exists a significant difference in spatial structure of middle school students in Dalian, which is shown differently with diversified classification standards. As a whole, it presents such the complex spatial characteristics as the urban and rural division of occupation and the north-south education difference. 2) Given the demand-side, the middle school education consumers in Dalian can be divided into four categories: the first is for children in highly educated and high-income families,the second is for children in urban middle-income families, the third is for children in farmers and migrant workers families, and the forth is for children in the workers and staff families. There are significant differences in the composition of the social groups represented by the students and their students in each type of school, which further leads to the emergence of schools with different characteristics and types. 3) The differences of social groups with a unit of school show obvious spatial distribution characteristics. The core layer, the core of a city, has the schools for children in highly educated and high-income families. The second layer, which is the marginal area and the new urban area of a city, has schools for the children of upper-middle income families and industrial workers as well as office workers. The outer layer where the outlying counties area, has schools for children of farmers and migrant workers.

教育关乎一个国家人口素质的提升和综合实力的发展,也是塑造国家和地区人地关系的重要因素。通过回顾并反思中西方人文地理学视角下的教育资源配置研究,总结当前中国相关研究的不足。借鉴当前西方教育资源空间格局研究中所采取的“资源格局—影响机制—社会效应”的主流路径,本文利用多种空间分析和机制研究方法,对中国优质基础教育资源空间格局、形成机制和综合效应进行了分析。研究发现：① 优质小学基础教育资源和优质中学教育资源的区域格局和强度虽各有差异,但都体现出不平衡的发展特征,特别是在区域尺度上,体现出明显的东西部差异。此外,中国几大城市群,如京津冀,沪宁杭,珠三角,武汉都市圈以及成渝都市圈等,是优质基础教育资源的优势区域;② 优质小学教育资源的形成和规模增长与城市居民经济自由度以及城市专任教师规模两个因素高度相关;优质中学教育资源的形成和规模增长和城市本底经济社会发展水平因素高度相关;③ 在多元相关机制作用下,中国优质教育资源空间结构在当下及未来必定处于复杂动态变化之中,并将更为深刻地塑造着城市与城市、城市与社会之间的互动关系。本文有助于理解中国优质教育资源空间结构不平衡的现状,同时反思和探索教育资源结构所蕴含和产生的政治意义和社会影响。

Education is not only important for strengthening a country's population quality and comprehensive power but key in reshaping the "man-land" relations in a country. This article reviews studies on the distribution of educational resources in both Chinese and Anglophone literature and summarizes the research gaps in the Chinese literature, which include but are not limited to the downplay of the analysis of mechanism and comprehensive effects of the spatial structure of educational resources. Employing different map-making technologies and mechanism-analysis methods, this article dives into three findings. First, though spatial features are slightly different between primary school level and middle school level, eastern regions generally have higher quality educational resources than western regions. In addition, urban agglomeration, including Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Shanghai-Ningbo-Hangzhou, and the Pearl River Delta, have an advantage in attracting and cultivating high-quality educational resources. Second, the quantity of high-quality primary school resources is positively correlated with annual per capita disposable income of urban households and number of full-time primary school teachers. The quantity of high-quality middle school resources is positively correlated with the comprehensive economic and social performance of the city. Third, when affected by multiple mechanisms, the spatial structure of China's high-quality educational resources is dynamic and deeply intertwines with the interrelations between cities as well as between the societies within each city. This article contributes both to the understanding of the unequal spatial structure of high-quality educational resources in China and to the analysis of complex socio-political effects on this transforming structure. Its findings encourage further research on the connection between the spatial structure of a region's educational resources and its cooperation and geopolitics as well as on the resulting social mobility among different social strata. Study limitations include: place-related elements, such as local political resources, were not sufficiently considered when selecting factors; there is a lack of longitudinal analysis; and not enough attention is paid to the combination of number-based data and geo-information-based data in analyses.

农村中小学的选址问题是当前地理学区位理论应用的一个热点,学校作为一个设施对学生上学安全和便捷程度有很大影响。许多学者研究了学校的区位问题,然而对农村地区来说,采用模型不够适合。本文学校选址研究充分考虑P-重心模型和P-中心模型的优缺点,在P-重心模型的基础上对模型进行改进,增加学生上学最大距离不超过某一阈值的约束,这样改进后的模型同时具有P-中心和P-重心模型的优点,既保证农村偏远地区的学生上学相对方便,又保证加权距离和相对最小。为了方便应用,应用地理信息科学方法,使用改进的节点交换搜索算法求解,然后通过Visual Studio 开发平台和ArcGIS Engine 二次开发组件库开发了农村中小学最优选址的决策支持系统。最后以山东省某镇为例,用该系统解决该镇的小学选址,结果发现改进后同时具有P-重心和P-中心特性的模型比传统的P-重心模型更能适合农村小学选址,能够作为小学学校规划选址的辅助决策依据。

The location of the primary and secondary schools has a great significance on ensuring the safety and convenience when students attending and leaving schools. Many previous researches have proposed school location-allocation models, but the models are not suitable for rural schools. In this manuscript, we improve the P-median model by fully considering the advantages of P-center model and P-median model. A maximum distance constraint between students' home and school are coupled into the original P-median model. Thus, the improved P-median model owns the advantages of both P-center model and P-median model, i.e. ensuring the convenience for students from remote rural areas, and minimizing the sum of weighted distance. In order to facilitate the model application, an decision support system based on our newly derived vertex substitution search algorithm for allocating optimal location of rural elementary and secondary school were developed on the ArcGIS Engine development component library and Visual Studio development platform. Afterwards, a town of Shandong province is taken as a system test case. The school location selected by our system is better than the locations selected by traditional P-median model. The results prove that the improved P-center model can supply a reference for allocating the location of elementary and secondary school.

The subject of this paper is a new approach to multiperiod school location planning in urban areas. Most of the existing approaches in the field do not consider free school choice nor are they able to consider substitution effects between school locations. We minimize the location and transport costs with respect to students choosing the school with the highest utility. Since these school choice probabilities (determined by a mixed multinominal logit model) depend on the available schools, we have to consider two steps. First, we generate for each period a set of scenarios indicating which school is open and which is not. For each scenario we allocate the students to available schools according to capacity and utility. Second, we select for each period one scenario in order to minimize total costs. Problems with a long planning horizon and a large number of demand points are solvable. We apply this approach to schools of the City of Dresden, Germany.

使用基于Rhino平台的UNA工具包，从住宅楼层面对大连市沙河口区幼儿园、小学和初中3类基础教育设施的空间可达性进行分析，并提出布局优化措施及新增选址方案。主要结论如下：① 各类基础教育设施空间分布不均，存在重复与缺失并存的现象；设施与住宅楼空间分布“错位”现象严重。② 各类基础教育设施均存在服务范围内住宅楼数量较少的问题，学区内的学生上下学需要耗费较长的路程与时间，若设施仅服务于规定服务范围内的居民，则部分设施会存在利用不足的情况。③ 在规定服务范围内，初中的可达比重最大，其次是小学和幼儿园。在规定服务范围外，幼儿园可达性为差及以下的比重最大，其次是初中和小学。④ 设施布局主要存在2个问题：设施供应不足和设施利用不足，对此提出相应的优化思路。并在考虑可达性和供需的情况下，提出2个新增设施参考选址方案，以改善设施可达性。其中方案一增加140所，方案二增加107所。

As an important part of basic public service facilities, basic education facilities are of great significance for improving the quality of life of residents and improving the efficiency of urban operations. At present, the research on educational facilities is comprehensive, mainly focusing on spatial layout, spatial accessibility and facility configuration. However, in the research scale, residential units and even subdistrict are mostly basic units. Such accuracy is obviously poor. This paper uses UNA toolkit, which based on Rhino, to analyze the spatial accessibility of three basic education facilities in kindergarten, elementary school and junior high school in Shahekou District of Dalian from the residential building and community level, and proposes optimization ideas and site-selection schemes. The main conclusions are as follows: 1) The spatial distribution of various basic education facilities is uneven, and there are phenomena of duplication and lack of coexistence; the phenomenon of “dislocation” of facilities and residential buildings is serious. 2) All kinds of basic education facilities have the problem of a small number of residential buildings within the service area. It will take a long time and distance to go to school. If the facility only serves residents within the scope of the specified service, some facilities may be underutilized. 3) In the scope of the prescribed services, junior high schools have the largest proportion of accessibility, followed by primary schools and kindergartens. Outside the prescribed scope of services, kindergartens have the worst accessibility, followed by junior high schools and primary schools. 2.97% of residential buildings with poor accessibility of the three types of facilities. These areas should give priority to adding education facilities. 4) In consideration of supply, demand and accessibility, two new facilities reference site selection schemes were proposed.

Although small, New Zealand is a useful comparative case for studying changing school admissions policies and their impact in urban areas. This article reviews New Zealand's admissions policies and their impact over three periods: the post-war social-democratic period, the 1990s when quasi-market policies were embraced in New Zealand; and the period since 2000 when the present Labour government reintroduced school admissions by residential zoning. The available evidence from all of these periods shows that New Zealand's urban middle classes have always sought and been successful in finding ways to educate their children in socially advantaged schools, but have done this in different ways depending on the policy of the day. The evidence from all periods also shows socially advantaged urban schools participating enthusiastically in this project.

两步移动搜寻法是公共服务设施空间可达性研究中的重要方法,在国内外公共服务设施布局研究中得到了广泛应用,且发展出了众多扩展形式。但国内研究中对两步移动搜寻法尤其是其扩展形式的应用还较为有限。本文对两步移动搜寻法的主要扩展形式进行系统梳理和总结,将国内外研究中提出的两步移动搜寻法扩展形式归纳为基于引入距离衰减函数的扩展、对搜寻半径的扩展、针对需求或供给竞争的扩展以及基于出行方式的扩展4类,并分析了各种扩展形式的优缺点、适用情景以及未来可能改进方向。旨在为相关研究的方法选择提供参考,促进两步移动搜寻法及其扩展形式在国内相关领域的应用和发展。

Two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is an important method of research on spatial accessibility to public services, which has been widely applied in studies on the spatial layout of public service facilities. Various extensions of 2SFCA have been developed. However, the application of the 2SFCA method and especially its extensions is still very limited in China. Thus, this study systematically summarizes the major extensions of the 2SFCA method. Such extensions found in existing literature can be classified into four categories. The first category focuses on the distance-decay function, replacing the dichotomous distance-decay form of the original 2SFCA by a multilevel discrete form as in the Enhanced 2SFCA, or continuous forms such as in the gravity-style, Gaussian-style, and Kernel-density-style distance-decay functions. The second category deals with the delimitation of catchment areas. The original 2SFCA form adopts a buffer-ring (BR) method delineating the catchment areas as concentric circles with certain radii of physical distance or travel time. A number of extensions have improved the BR method, including the Variable 2SFCA, the Dynamic 2SFCA, and the Multi Catchment Sizes 2SFCA. Moreover, a novel nearest-neighbor (NN) method for delineating the catchment areas by identifying a finite number of nearest facilities for each demand node has been proposed. The third category strives to improve the accuracy of 2SFCA by accounting for the competition among demand nodes or among supply nodes. The initial extension of this category is the Three-step Floating Catchment Area (3SFCA) method, following which other extensions such as the Modified 2SFCA and the Huff 2SFCA are proposed to make further improvements. The fourth category extends the travel means of the demand side, including the Multi-mode 2SFCA taking into account various potential transportation modes, and the Commuter-based 2SFCA integrating service visits and commuting behavior. The advantages and disadvantages, scenarios appropriate for their application, and potential improvements in the future of these extensions are also discussed. This study can contribute to the choice of method in relevant studies and promote the implementation and development of the 2SFCA method and extensions in relevant research fields in China.

空间可达性度量既可用于评价公共服务设施空间布局的合理性，也可用于比较规划方案的优劣。公共服务设施空间可达性度量需要针对不同设施特有的空间布局目标，选取与之相适应的可达性评价因子，并采用合适的度量方法展开，对此进行专题研究的文献并不多见。本文一方面在对公共服务设施按照时效性、接受性、数量、等级性进行分类的基础上，系统阐述如何针对不同设施进行空间布局目标设定和可达性评价因子选取；另一方面将主要的度量方法分为比例法、最近距离法、基于机会累积的方法、基于空间相互作用的方法，并对各类方法的应用领域及优缺点予以分析比较，同时以潜能模型、两步移动搜寻法为例探讨相关方法在公共服务设施空间可达性度量中的应用；最后在对上述研究总结评述的基础上，本文指出多等级设施空间可达性、从需求者的活动规律考虑空间可达性、针对各类设施的综合空间可达性以及相关度量方法与GIS的集成等主题值得投入更多关注。

Spatial accessibility measurement can be applied to assess the rationality of public service facilities distribution, and can be used to compare the merits and drawbacks of related planning schemes. As for spatial accessibility measurement to public service facilities, the primary issue is to select corresponding accessibility evaluation factors according to specific spatial distribution targets of various facilities presumed by facilities features and service demands, and the next is to apply appropriate accessibility measurement approaches according to the evaluation factors and to achieve the accessibility calculation. However, it is unlucky that the present literature on such thematic studies is scarce. On the one hand, we analyze the classification to public service facilities from the perspectives of service urgency, acceptability, quantity (single or various) and hierarchic rank, and then we discuss how to presume spatial distribution targets and select corresponding accessibility evaluation factors of different facilities. On the other hand, we introduce the main measurement approaches including the methods based on supply (provider) versus demand (population), the shortest travel impedance (time or distance), opportunities to be accumulated, and spatial interaction, and furthermore we compare the applications as well as the merits and drawbacks of various approaches, and discuss how to measure spatial accessibility of public service facilities based on potential model and two-step floating catchment area method. Finally, based on the above review and summary, we point out that the following research topics should be devoted more attention to: the spatial accessibility measurement to hierarchical facilities, comprehensive examination of the spatial accessibility measurement from the point of view of demanders activities, integrated spatial accessibility measurement to multiple facilities in the study area, and the integration between complicated measure approaches and GIS.

县域义务教育学校体系规模的合理布局、适龄儿童入学可达性对义务教育公平和均衡发展具有重要意义。采用基尼系数、齐夫指数等方法对泌阳县2004—2016年县域小学学校体系规模空间演化特征、就学可达性变化及其空间分异进行了实证研究。结果表明：研究区县域小学规模两极分化严重，学生和教师的城乡不平衡指数大大增加，首位学校以及位序靠前的学校垄断性增强，学校规模从均衡发展演化为非均衡状态；2016年入学距离在2 km范围内的自然村相比2004年略有降低，距最近完全小学在2 km范围内的自然村出现大幅降低，完全小学大幅减少，服务范围增大，覆盖度出现显著降低；2016年各乡镇学生、教师基尼系数显著增加，全县范围空间分异规律基本一致；相比2004年，2016年地形高度、距乡镇政府所在地距离对自然村入学距离影响显著增强，特别是对最近完全小学入学距离的影响更大。

The article adopts Gini coefficient, Ziff index, accessibility analysis and urban-rural imbalance index to empirically study the model of the scale spatial pattern of the urban and rural school system scale of the compulsory education in the central agricultural area of county in Henan from 2004 to 2016. The results show that: 1) The difference in the size of primary schools in the district and county area increased, the polarization was serious, the number of middle suitable size decreased significantly, and the urban-rural imbalance index between students and teachers increased greatly. The Ziff index analysis of order of primary school students in the county shows that the first school and the top schools increased in size and monopoly. 2) Compared with 2004, there was a slight decrease from the natural villages within 2 km specified by the Ministry of Education in 2016; the natural villages were significantly reduced from the nearest complete primary school in 2016. The number of natural villages with a school distance of more than 2 km increased by 2.87, and there was a significant reduction (50.6%) in complete primary schools. And there was a sparse spatial distribution and an increase in the range of services. 3) The coverage of all primary schools in the study area in 2016 was less than that in 2004, but the coverage of complete primary schools decreased significantly, with 1 km coverage reduced by 60%, compared to 2004; and the coverage of 2 km service area decreased by 48%. The 2 km coverage required by the Ministry of Education accounts for only about 40% of the county's area, which did not meet the requirements of the Ministry of Education. 4) The Gini coefficient of students and teachers in the townships in the study area in 2004 was relatively small, but the size of the school and the teachers were in a state of balanced development as a whole, and the Gini coefficient of students and teachers increased significantly in 2016, and the spatial differences were basically consistent. The main part of the townships with large changes in the Gini coefficient is around the county and towns with high level of urbanization. 5) The natural villages in the study area showed the change of elevation with the increase of enrollment distance; the further the distance of admission is, the higher the average altitude is. Compared with 2004, with the increase in altitude from the nearest primary schools and the nearest complete primary schools, an average distance increased significantly. 6) In 2016, compared with 2004, the distance from villages and towns has a greater impact on the access to school, especially on that to the nearest complete primary schools.

山区贫困县具有经济落后、交通不便、人口分散且居住空间格局快速变化等特点,使得其中小学空间格局变化及可达性分析在教育公平中具有重要意义。本文以豫西山区贫困县嵩县为例,利用1997、2007、2015年中小学数据,运用趋势面分析和引力模型等方法对其空间格局变化及其空间可达性进行研究。主要结论为：①嵩县中小学空间布局在一些地形条件地区局部集中：小学在浅山丘陵区和低山区分布相对较多,初中则局部集中在浅山丘陵区;②撤点并校使中小学数量减少,各行政村内学校数量的分布差距缩小,趋势线逐渐平缓;③Voronoi模型的Cv值结果显示,中小学空间分布呈集聚分布状态,随着中小学数量的减少其空间集聚程度逐渐下降,在县域北部沿东北—西南走向呈现面状密集分布区,沿境内两条主要干线路(G311和S247)分别形成南北和东西向狭长带状分布区;④2015年中小学空间可达性区域差别明显,小学最远入学距离为最近入学距离的160倍,有26.1%的村庄初中入学距离达10 km以上,且全部位于中山和低山地区;⑤地形、交通、人口、经济、政策因素等对嵩县教育资源的分布具有重要影响。

Poor mountainous regions in China suffer from economic underdevelopment, inconvenient transportation, scattered population distribution, and fast-changing residential spatial pattern. These make the study of spatial distribution changes of primary and secondary schools in these regions critical for improving education equality. By using the case of Song County in the poor mountainous region of western Henan Province, this study acquired long-term school data (1997, 2007, and 2015), and analyzed the changes in spatial pattern and spatial accessibility of these schools employing the trend surface analysis technique and gravity model. The results show that: (1) Primary and secondary schools in Song County were partially concentrated in areas with some terrain conditions. Primary schools were found more in the hilly and low-mountainous areas, and secondary schools concentrated in the hilly areas. (2) School merges decreased the total number of institutions and the differences in the number of schools among different villages, and the trend line became flat gradually. (3) The Cv value of the Voronoi model shows that schools followed an aggregated distribution pattern, and the degree of aggregation decreased as the number of schools decreased. The schools were mainly found in a region spreading from northeast to southwest in the northern part of the county, forming two narrow distribution bands along the two main roads (S247 and G311). (4) School accessibilities were spatially varied in 2015. The longest distance to school was 160 times that of the shortest distance to school. Villages that had more than 10 km distance to schools were all found in the mid-mountainous and low-mountainous areas, constituting 26.1% of the total number. (5) Terrain, transportation, population, economy, and government policy were all influential to the distribution of educational resources in Song County.

公园绿地可达性是衡量城市宜居水平的重要指标。针对传统可达性分析多用统计数据开展评估而导致的供需尺度失衡问题,论文以深圳为例,采用公园绿地空间矢量数据和手机信令数据获取供需空间分布,采用高斯两步移动搜索法计算交通小区(TAZ)尺度公园绿地可达性,并结合可达性结果及供需、交通情况聚类,剖析可达性差异化模式及成因。主要结论如下：① 通过改进传统可达性计算数据源和高斯两步移动搜索模型,建立城市中微观尺度公园绿地可达性评价及成因研究框架,可更精确地评估优化城市公园绿地可达性;② 深圳市公园绿地综合可达性整体水平较高,但存在明显的从中心向外围递减的趋势,社区公园可达性差异与公园绿地供需不匹配是造成各区域可达性差异大的重要原因;③ 根据K均值聚类分析结果,将深圳市TAZ单元分成低供给低需求低可达性区、中供给低需求中可达性区、高供给高需求中可达性区、高供给低需求高可达性区,各类区域具有差异化的可达性内涵、特征和成因;④ 公园绿地可达性提升可针对不同分区特征,通过公园布局优化、道路建设和居住区规划布局等差异化方式实现。研究充实了城市公园绿地可达性评价案例,提出的基于手机信令数据和高斯两步移动搜索法的可达性分析方法不仅可应用于城市公园绿地布局与规划,也可为其他地理现象可达性分析提供思路参考。

Accessibility of park green space is an important indicator of the livability level of a city. In order to solve the problem of scale imbalance between population and park green space distribution data by traditional accessibility analysis, this study used mobile phone signaling data to obtain the spatial distribution of population, and adopted the Gaussian two-step floating catchment area method to calculate the accessibility of park green space at the scale of traffic analysis zone (TAZ) in Shenzhen City. It also conducted a cluster analysis based on the accessibility results, supply and demand, and traffic conditions. The main conclusions are as follows: 1) More refined population information can be obtained through mobile phone signaling data to improve the accuracy of demand assessment. For different types of parks, the Gaussian two-step floating catchment area method represents an improvement in calculating the accessibility of parks in the city. 2) The overall level of comprehensive accessibility of park green space in Shenzhen is relatively high, but there is an obvious decreasing trend from the city center to the periphery. The mismatch between the accessibility of community parks and the supply and demand of park green space is an important reason for the large difference of accessibility among different regions in Shenzhen. 3) According to the results ofK-means clustering analysis, the TAZ units of the city was divided into low supply low demand low accessibility zone, medium supply low demand medium accessibility zone, high supply high demand medium accessibility zone, and high supply low demand high accessibility zone. 4) The accessibility of park green space can be improved by optimizing park layout, road construction, and residential area planning and layout. By improving data source and model of the traditional accessibility calculation, this study enriches the cases of park green space accessibility evaluation, and the proposed accessibility analysis method based on mobile phone signaling can also provide a reference for the accessibility analysis of other geographic phenomenon.

空间可达性是评价教育设施布局合理性的重要指标,而潜能模型是度量教育设施空间可达性的重要方法。本文在引入学校服务能力因子的基础上,综合考虑学校服务能力等级影响和居民极限出行时间构建就学影响因子,对潜能模型加以改进。通过以湖北省仙桃市为典型县域单元的案例研究,结果表明：①村级居民点尺度,乡镇中心和高等级公路沿线居民点的小学空间可达性普遍较高,并按照一定的半径范围呈距离衰减过程,而乡镇毗邻地区居民点的小学空间可达性相对较差;②乡镇(街道)尺度,可达性较高的乡镇(街道)主要分布在沿G318的北部地区,且城乡间、主城区与城郊的小学空间可达性均存在一定差距;③改进潜能模型能合理地评价各农村居民聚落点和各乡镇的小学空间可达性,当摩擦系数β取值为2时,能更为准确地揭示农村居民所能获取的教育资源,为相关部门决策提供科学依据。

Spatial accessibility is an important index to evaluate the configuration of educational facilities, and potential model is an important method to measure the accessibility of educational facilities. This study improved the potential model from two aspects: by introducing the factor of primary school service ability, and constructing the school influence factor by considering the influence of schools with different grades of service capability and local residents' travel time limit. Based on the data of Xiantao City in Hubei Province by the end of 2010 on primary schools, residents, traffic network, and so on, the improved potential model was applied to assess the variation of spatial accessibility to primary schools in Xiantao City. The results show that: (1) At the village-level settlement scale, the spatial accessibility of primary schools for the residents is universally high at township centers and along transport corridors, and shows a distance attenuation effect at certain radius, but the spatial accessibility of primary schools at settlements between townships is relatively low. (2) At the township scale, the towns with higher spatial accessibility are mainly distributed in the northern area along the G318 road. (3) The improved potential model could reasonably evaluate the spatial accessibility of primary schools in each rural settlement and township. Also, when the value of friction coefficient (β) is set as 2, the educational resources available for rural residents can be reflected more accurately, and this provides a reference for the decision making by relevant government departments.

为解决高密度城市公园绿地供需不平衡的问题,论文提出了一套改进的两步移动搜索模型,并以上海市黄浦区为例,对其现有公园绿地进行步行条件下的空间可达性分析。首先从网络爬取研究范围内居住小区POI信息,将其聚合在边长100 m的正六边形蜂窝网内,计算得到每个人口单元的人数及人口密度,并利用百度地图API路径规划接口爬取各供给点和需求点间基于实时路况的出行时间;其次,以黄浦区2019年底已建公园绿地为例,从居住区人口需求、可达性分级、冷热点和盲区分析4个方面对其供需配置进行量化分析,结果表明,黄浦区公园绿地可达性水平整体北高南低,和人口密度分布呈负相关,存在供需错位问题,且仍有9.16%的显性盲区和16.5%的隐性盲区亟待消除。研究结果为进一步优化绿地空间布局和选址提供指导依据;最后从适度增量、盘活存量、社区共治3个方面提出建议,以期为黄浦区绿化“十四五”规划提供理论支持。

In order to solve the problem of unbalanced supply and demand of park green space in high density cities, this study used a Gaussian based two-step floating catchment area method to analyze the spatial accessibility of existing park green space in Huangpu District of Shanghai, under walking conditions. First, we extracted the point of interest (POI) data of residential areas from the Internet and aggregated them into a 100 m long hexagonal cellular network to calculate the number of people and population density, then through the Application Programming Interface (API) of Baidu Map we extracted the travel time between supply and demand points based on actual road conditions. Second, the paper took the park green space built by the end of 2018 in Huangpu District of Shanghai as an example, and considered the four aspects of residents' demand, accessibility classification, cold and hot spots, and blank areas. The results show that the accessibility level of park green space in Huangpu District is higher in the north and lower in the south, which is negatively correlated with the population density distribution. The dominant blind areas (9.16% of the total area) and the recessive blind areas (16.5% of the total area) should be eliminated. This study made a quantitative analysis on the supply and demand allocation, to provide guidance for the further optimization of green space layout and site selection. Finally, recommendations were made from three aspects of "increasing green space appropriately", "strengthening the quality of existing green space" and "community co-governance", in order to provide theoretical support for the Fourteenth Five-Year Plan of greening Huangpu District.

This article synthesizes two GIS-based accessibility measures into one framework, and applies the methods to examining spatial accessibility to primary health care in the Chicago ten-county region. The floating catchment area (FCA) method defines the service area of physicians by a threshold travel time while accounting for the availability of physicians by their surrounded demands. The gravity-based method considers a nearby physician more accessible than a remote one and discounts a physician's availability by a gravity-based potential. The former is a special case of the latter. Based on the 2000 Census and primary care physician data, this research assesses the variation of spatial accessibility to primary care in the Chicago region, and analyzes the sensitivity of results by experimenting with ranges of threshold travel times in the FCA method and travel friction coefficients in the gravity model. The methods may be used to help the US Department of Health and Human Services and state health departments improve designation of Health Professional Shortage Areas.

Limited studies focus on educational equity from the spatial accessibility perspective. This study combines survey data and big data and proposes a multi-mode Huff two-step floating catchment area (MMH2SFCA) method to calculate accessibility while considering multiple travel modes and school attractiveness. This method can also calculate education quality by extending the accessibility in each community. Results show that our proposed method can reliably identify the accessibility differences of schools across communities. The case study indicates an inequitable distribution of educational accessibility and quality. The communities with high accessibility are concentrated in the urban center and exurban zones surrounding schools, whereas high-quality areas are mainly concentrated in the urban center. Correlation analysis suggests that the educational quality of communities with high accessibility is not always high. The findings of this study can provide improvement for accessibility measurements and help explore a new research perspective for educational equity research.

基于“学籍信息中的家庭地址承载了学生空间位置”这一假设，通过学籍信息收集了湖南省株洲县小学生的家庭地址，借助高德开放平台提供的地理编码和POI搜索服务，获得到了株洲县小学生的空间位置和分布，并基于最短路径分析和高斯型两步移动搜索法分析了株洲县小学教育资源的空间可达性及其特征，尝试为区域教育资源的空间均衡性分析与规划配置提供新的数据源和方法借鉴。结果表明：① 基于学籍地址和地理编码技术能够较准确地获取株洲县小学生的空间分布。② 株洲县小学生就近入学距离的最大值、平均值和中位数分别为11.83 km、2.10 km和1.81 km，就近入学距离小于2.0 km的学生仅占55.46%，为株洲县兼顾公平和效率的教育资源配置工作带来了挑战。③ 株洲县北部城镇地区因学校数量较多，平均就近入学距离较小，教育资源的空间可达性普遍较高，且空间差异小，均衡性好；而东南部的乡村地区，平均就近入学距离较大，教育资源的空间可达性普遍较低，且空间差异大。④ 基于情景分析，在不造成局地生源稳定性问题的前提下，新增3所学校后，东南部地区的平均就近入学距离和教育资源的空间可达性有很大的改善，龙潭镇和龙门镇的平均入学距离由3784 m和3520 m降低到3116 m和2636 m，教育资源的空间可达性分别由0.0492和0.0982提高到0.0762和0.1496。

Based on the assumption that a student home address implies a geographic location, this study retrieved the geographic coordinates and spatial distribution of primary school students by using the geocoding APIs provided by AutoNavi Information Technology Co. Ltd after collecting the registered student home addresses in Zhuzhou, Hunan province. Shortest distances through the road network from student home to all schools in the area were calculated based on the Dijkstra algorithm and the spatial accessibility of primary educational resources was assessed by using a two-step floating catchment area method. This study is aiming at providing a new method to obtain the spatial distribution of primary school students and a new viewing angle to assess the spatial equilibrium of educational resources in rural areas. Results show that: 1) the geographic coordinates can be adequately obtained by using registered home addresses and geocoding APIs. 2) The maximum, mean, and medium of shortest distances from student home to their nearest school are 11.83 km, 2.10 km, and 1.81 km in the study area, respectively. Only 55.46% of the shortest distances from student home to their nearest school is less than 2.0 km in the study area, which rises a challenge for achieving a fair and efficient educational resources distribution. 3) In the northern region of the study area, the averaged shortest distance from student home to their nearest school is generally small and the spatial accessibility of primary educational resources is uniformly high because there exist many schools. However, the shortest distances are relatively large and the spatial accessibility is low in the south-eastern region because the number of schools in this region is small. 4) At last, the averaged shortest distance from student home to their nearest school was largely reduced and the spatial educational resources accessibility was highly improved in the south-eastern region of the study area in a scenario of installing three new schools. For example, the averaged shortest distance was reduced from 3784 m and 3520 m to 3116 m and 2636 m, and the spatial accessibility was improved from 0.0492 and 0.0982 to 0.0762 and 0.1496 in Longtan and Longmen, respectively.

人口密度格网尺度适宜性研究旨在遴选适宜格网,较好表达人口分布位置,揭示人口分布差异,提高人口数据空间化质量。以安徽省宣州区的乡村区域为研究区,设计了人口密度格网尺度适宜性评价方法,通过构建位置表达度、数值信息表达度和空间关系表达度三类评价指标,开展了人口密度格网尺度适宜性评价研究,结合格网尺度—指标数值关系曲线,确定人口密度适宜格网尺度遴选方案,选取适宜格网尺度,评价了人口密度适宜格网的尺度合理性。结果表明：兼顾位置、数值精度、空间关系三方面的表达度,40 m、50 m格网是一个相对适宜的格网尺度,是生产高质量人口空间数据的适宜格网。初步研究表明,针对本研究区的人口密度格网尺度适宜性评价方案是合理的、有效的,是生产高质量人口空间数据遴选适宜格网的有效方法。

Grid cell is the basic unit to express population distribution based on gridded population data. The choice of suitable grid size is very important, as the resolution must be fine enough to capture the desired spatial variation of population within the area of interest. The research on grid size suitability refers to determinate an appropriate grid size for revealing the population distribution difference and the distribution position for human beings in geographical space. It is important to provide improvement in accuracies of gridded population distribution. However, currently little research has been done in this area. Many well-modeled gridded population dataset are basically built at a single grid scale. If the grid cell size is not appropriate, it will result in spatial information loss or data redundancy. Besides, there is scale dependency in the spatial distribution of population. And the characteristics of population distribution patterns are different at varied grid scales. This study designed a scheme on grid size suitability evaluation method. The rural area of Xuanzhou District in Anhui Province was selected as the study area. The research on grid size suitability was carried out by constructing three kinds of expressed levels, which included location expressed level, numeric information expressed level and spatial relationship expressed level. The scheme on choosing suitable grid size was determined in combination of grid size-indicator value curves. Then the suitable grid size was selected and its rationality was evaluated. Results reveal that comsidering three expressions of location, numeric information and spatial relationship, 40 m and 50 m grids are relatively suitable grid size, which can be recommended as the appropriate scale for generating a high-quality gridded population distribution in the study area. Based on the preliminary study, result also indicates that it is reasonable and effective to assess grid size suitability by the evaluation method in three perspectives of expressed level. It is expected that the method on grid size suitability can make contributions to the advancement of accurate gridded population mapping.

格网尺度效应是统计型人口数据空间化研究的基础性问题之一。针对资源环境研究领域和全球变化区域模型对各种尺度的空间型人口数据的需求,人们对人口数据空间化进行了大量研究。综观现有研究成果,缺乏针对具体应用需求的数据源选择方法和对数据产品适宜性的分析。因此,数据在实际应用中,特别是县市、二、三级流域等尺度上的应用中,存在较多的不确定性。本文重点研究人口数据空间化的格网尺度效应分析方法。以浙江省义乌市为例,利用CBERS、IRS-P5卫星影像,提取了研究区土地利用信息;在地理信息系统技术支持下,对乡镇统计人口进行空间化建模,生成20m至1km系列的格网人口数据;通过比较不同格网人口与乡镇统计人口的误差,分析人口数据空间化的格网尺度效应。分析结果表明,采用CBERS数据源进行人口数据空间化,其数据产品即格网人口的适宜尺度是200m,抽样精度为76%;采用P5数据源进行人口数据空间化,其格网人口的适宜尺度是100m,抽样精度为84%。

合理的配置公共服务设施对城市的现代化建设至关重要。空间可达性是度量公共服务设施配置是否合理的方法之一。在诸多的研究方法中,高斯两步移动搜索法由于直观且运算简便,因而得到广泛应用。但该方法也有不足之处,本文运用格网GIS方法,以上海市的绿地空间可达性为例,对两步移动搜索法进行模型方法的改进研究,并对高斯两步移动搜索法和格网化的高斯两步移动搜索法进行对比分析,结果表明：后者可降低空间可达性的误差,提高可达性精度,对上海市绿地空间可达性反映更加真实、客观。如果选择合理的数据将其格网化,该方法也可以用于其他公共服务设施的空间可达性研究。

In recent years, urban public service facilities have increased rapidly. Spatial accessibility measurement can be applied to assess the soundness of public service facilities distribution. Among various kinds of methods, the Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method is relatively straightforward, and the greatest strength of the method is that it overcomes the restriction of using only pre-defined regional boundaries. Therefore it is most widely used. However, further research is needed to improve its accuracy. Many recent improvements to the 2-step floating catchment area method generally account for distance-decay within a catchment or enable the usage of variable catchment sizes. In order to improve the method, this study conducted a case study of green space accessibility analysis for the city of Shanghai using the census data of 2000 and 2010 and raster GIS analysis. The result was compared to the original 2-step floating catchment area method output. The results show that the raster Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method is a more precise method than the Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method for measuring the spatial accessibility to green space. A map of spatial accessibility was developed to show the geographic distribution of spatial accessibility to green space in Shanghai. Spatial accessibility is higher in the peri-urban part as compared to the central part of the city. The raster Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method can reduce the error of Kriging spatial interpolation. In the Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method the result is expressed as values at the center points of streets and these values are discrete. But in the raster Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method the green space accessibility of a point in the space is computed for the grid cell. Thus the raster Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method is more precise than the Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method. Also, the raster Gaussian based 2-step floating catchment area method calculates the exact number of demand within a catchment. The green space accessibility example is used to demonstrate the advantage of the improved method, but it can also be applied in other urban public service facility studies.

基于教育POI设施数据,利用ArcGIS比较统计地图（Cartogram）、核密度分析和探索性空间数据分析（ESDA）等方法对基础教育公共服务均等化空间格局进行研究,并采用地理加权回归（GWR）方法对其格局形成的影响因素进行探究。结果表明：东部和中部地区基础教育公共服务资源数量约占65%,基础教育公共服务的高值区域与城市群所在区域较为吻合,低值区域主要分布于胡焕庸线以西,东西部基础教育资源绝对数量差异明显。学前教育服务人均数量的低值区主要分布在西部,中部也存在部分低值塌陷区,相较于中小学,学前教育公共服务的非均等化问题突出。小学和中学教育公共服务人均数量的高高集聚（H-H）和低低集聚（L-L）区域在东中西地区均有分布,综合而言,地区基础教育公共服务人均数量均等化优于绝对数量的均等化状况。常住人口、第三产业比例、建成区面积是基础教育公共服务均等化空间格局分异的主要影响因素。

With the rapid socio-economic development and the progress of urbanization, the demand for basic education public service is increasing both in rural and urban areas. As a result, the issue of regional and urban-rural non-equalization has become increasingly prominent, which significantly affects the development of the harmonious society. Under this background, the paper discussed the equalization of basic education public service. Based on the POI data of basic education facilities, the spatial pattern and the influencing factors of the equalization of basic education public service in China were studied with the method of ArcGIS spatial statistical analysis functions, such as cartogram, kernel density, geographical weighted regression(GWR) and the exploratory sequential data analysis (ESDA). The results show that the basic education public service of eastern and central China accounts for about 65%, and the high-value regions of the basic education public service are observed in urban agglomerations of China, while the low-value regions are mainly located to the west of the "Hu Line". The low-value regions of the preschool education public service per capita are found in the central and western regions of China. Compared with the elementary and secondary education public service, the non-equalization situation of the preschool public service is more obvious. The high-high concentrated regions, the elementary and secondary education public service per capita highly owned regions, and the low-low concentrated regions are distributed all over the country. In general, the equalization of regional basic education public service per capita is superior to the absolute numbers. The spatial heterogeneity is recognized by geographical weighted regression model. The resident population, tertiary industry proportion, and urban built-up area are the major factors influencing the spatial pattern of the equalization of basic education public service. Education fiscal expenditure, GDP per capita and the fixed asset investment are the secondary driving forces of the spatial pattern of the equalization of basic education public service.

以国家统筹城乡教育发展试验区的重庆市乡村地区为例，采用Densi-Graph城乡识别法进行行政区划内部格网尺度的精准识别，在此基础上探究义务教育资源可得性水平的空间差异及影响因素。结果表明：1）基于Densi-Graph城乡识别法的重庆市城乡差异显著，乡村区域面积达79 752 km²，占区域总面积的96.82%。城市部分面积为2 616 km²，占区域总面积的3.18%。2）重庆市义务教育资源可得性水平具有显著的空间集聚与关联特征，并呈现由中心城区向外递减的格局。3）政府重视程度、社会经济发展水平、交通设施水平、自然地理环境均与义务教育资源可得性水平具有显著相关性。4）交通站点密度与教育投入是影响义务教育资源可得性水平的主导因子，二者与各项因子的交互叠加作用增强效果显著；影响机制上，地形起伏度与坡度是乡村义务教育资源可得性水平的限制条件，社会经济是基础，交通是关键，教育投入是核心。

Education is the first step toward revitalizing the rural. The rational allocation of rural compulsory education resources is an important means of achieving comprehensive social development and urban-rural integration. This study used the Densi-Graph urban and rural identification method method to accurately identify urban and rural areas at the grid scale within the administrative division. Taking the rural area of Chongqing as an example, based on resource coverage, environmental constraints, and accessibility, this study explored the spatial differences in compulsory education resource availability. A spatial regression model and geographical detector were used to determine the main influencing factors. In order to provide data support and decision-making reference for the availability of rural compulsory education resources and spatial optimization of schools. The results show that the following: First, there is a significant difference between urban and rural areas based on the Densi-Graph urban-rural identification method, with the rural area of Chongqing reaching 79,752 km2, accounting for 96.82% of the total area; the urban area is 2,616 km2, accounting for only 3.18% of the total area, and is concentrated in the central city. There are significant circle layer increasing characteristics in the distribution of rural areas. From the central urban area to the periphery, the proportion of urban areas gradually decrease, and the proportion of rural areas gradually increase. The proportion of rural areas in the central urban area is 80.12%; the area of rural areas in the pioneering development areas of the same city, important strategic pivot cities, and bridgehead cities account for 95.81%, 96.32%, and 97.04%, respectively, which are higher in southeast and northeast Chongqing. Second, the availability of compulsory education resources in Chongqing has obvious spatial agglomeration and spatial correlation characteristics. High-level areas are clustered around the central urban area and scattered in the central area of the townships. Low-level areas are concentrated in backward mountainous areas, such as Chengkou, Wushan, and Pengshui. Specifically, high-level resource coverage areas are in a point-like agglomeration state in northeast and southeast Chongqing. The polarization of accessibility is significant. High-level areas only appear around the central urban area, while low-level areas are widely distributed in the west, northeast, and southeast of Chongqing. The degree of environmental constraint varies with terrain, and the spatial differences are small. A small number of low-level regions are concentrated at the junction of Chengkou, Kaixian, and Wuxi, with large terrain fluctuations. Overall, the availability level of compulsory education resources in rural areas of Chongqing shows a spatial difference pattern of decrease from the urban center to the periphery. Third, the degree of government attention, level of social and economic development, level of transportation facilities, and natural geographical environment are all related to the availability of compulsory education resources, but the degree of influence varies. Location dominance, slope, and topographic relief are negative factors, whereas the remaining factors play a positive role. Fourth, regional socioeconomic development affects the distribution of regional compulsory education resource points and investment in compulsory education, which is the basis for affecting the availability of resources. Public transport routes and traffic site density are key indicators affecting the availability of compulsory education resources, and there is significant interaction between social and economic development and education investment. Guaranteeing investment in education, optimizing the distribution of compulsory education points, and strengthening public transportation are equivalent to providing financial support and government attention. These are at the core of guaranteeing improvement in the level of availability of compulsory education resources in rural areas.