张红霞
, 苏勤
ZHANG Hongxia, SU Qin
版权声明: 2017 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：张红霞(1982- ),安徽宣城人,讲师,博士研究生,主要从事旅游影响和低碳旅游研究, E-mail:zhx2246@163.com。
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摘要
在全球致力于积极应对气候变化的时代背景下,旅游业已成为许多国家和地区实施经济低碳转型的优势产业、先导产业和窗口产业,而住宿业则在此中发挥着重要的作用。本文从必要性、障碍因素和对策措施3个方面梳理了住宿业节能减碳的相关研究成果,并对住宿业能耗和碳排放核算的方法进行了归纳总结,在此基础上探讨了已有研究存在的不足之处,并指出进一步研究的方向。综述发现：国外相关研究已有一定基础,但住宿业能耗与碳排放的核算方法体系还有待深入探讨;国内对于住宿业节能减碳的必要性、能耗与碳排放核算等也有一些尝试研究,但总体仍相对滞后,缺乏研究的系统性和深度。后续研究应在借鉴国际相关研究经验的基础上,紧扣中国住宿业实情,通过加强对非星级住宿企业的分析以全面把握研究对象,确立能耗和碳排放核算框架、完善核算方法体系,通过分阶段、分类型、分区域核算与分析进一步拓展住宿业节能减碳的研究内容。
关键词：
Abstract
Under the global effort to cope with climate change, tourism has become an important and leading industry for the low carbon transition of economy in many countries and regions. As one of the core branches of the tourism industry, the tourist accommodation sector is playing a key role in this process. This study reviewed the related literature from the following three aspects: the necessity, barriers, and countermeasures of saving energy and reducing the carbon emissions of the accommodation sector. The review found that numerous studies have shown that the energy consumption and carbon emissions of the tourist accommodation sector are very high, and there is a large space for improvements. The review of the barriers and countermeasures for saving energy and reducing carbon emissions in the sector was focused on three main stakeholders: the government, the industry, and customers. At last, we summarized the methods of accounting the energy consumption and carbon emissions of the tourist accommodation sector. Based on this summary, we discussed the drawbacks in the existing research, and pointed out the directions for further research. Generally, some achievements in the research of energy saving and carbon emission reduction of the accommodation sector have been made internatinally, but such research is lagging behind in China. Next, we should carry out the following research based on the international experiences and the actual situation in China. We need to strength the study of energy consumption and carbon emissions of all forms of accommodation services to understand the research subjects comprehensively, determine the measuring framework and indicators in order to establish the accounting system, and extend the research on the topic from doing the subdivision studies in stages, types and regions.
Keywords：
全球气候变化是21世纪人类社会面临的最重要的环境问题,应对气候变化是全球实施可持续发展战略最核心的任务之一。旅游业作为当今世界第一大产业,需要实施有效的能源管理战略以降低环境影响和温室气体排放,这已为各国政府所认可(UNCED, 1992)。住宿业作为旅游业的核心分支行业之一,在传统观念中一直被认为是能耗较低且对自然环境没有太大影响的行业。然而事实并非如此,相对于商业建筑平均30~152 kWh/m2的能耗状况(Saridar et al, 2002),住宿业平均可达250~350 kWh/m2,一些高档次酒店甚至达450~700 kWh/m2(Santamouris et al, 1996; Chan et al, 2002);住宿业的高能耗所排放的温室气体必然会给环境带来很大的影响(Beccali et al, 2009; Teng et al, 2012)。据估计,住宿业的碳排放占全球旅游业碳排放的21%(UNWTO-UNEP-WMO, 2008),是旅游业中仅次于交通运输的第二大排放源,而全球住宿业的能耗与碳排放在未来较长时间内还将进一步增长(Gössling et al, 2016)。相关研究已显示,要实现旅游业的可持续发展,降低数量和规模巨大的住宿业的能耗以及碳排放极为重要,也非常紧迫(Dalton et al, 2009b; 沈杨等, 2017)。2009年,世界旅游及旅行理事会确立了至2035年将全球旅游业的碳排放减至2005年的50%的行动纲领(World Travel and Tourism Council, 2009),这也要求学界积极加强住宿业等旅游核心分支行业的节能减碳研究。
在此背景下,国内外相关学者特别是国外学者已经就住宿业的节能减碳开展了大量研究,适时梳理已有成果,对明确未来的研究方向与内容具有较大的理论与实践意义。李旭等(2013)从研究内容和研究方法等方面对住宿业碳排放的研究进展进行了综述。本文在此基础上,以节能减碳为研究视角,从必要性、障碍因素和对策3个方面全面梳理住宿业能耗与碳排放的相关研究内容,并对住宿业能耗和碳排放核算的方法进行对比分析与理论总结,希冀厘清学界关于住宿业节能减碳研究的重点与难点,指出中国未来研究需要关注的方面。
住宿业的总体构成较为零散,多数情况下,单个住宿企业的能耗和碳排放并不高,但整个行业的能耗和碳排放却不容忽视(Kirk, 1995)。住宿业的功能很多,其能耗主要来自于照明、加热、通风、空调、热水供应、电梯以及烹饪(Wang et al, 2013),其中通风和空调在多数住宿企业能耗都是最高的,而碳排放的第一影响因素则是使用电力产生的间接碳排放(黄崎等, 2014)。Gössling(2002)首次计算了全球住宿设施的能源消耗量,为507.9 PJ,CO2总排放量为80.5 Mt,住宿业的能耗和碳排放开始引起学界关注。一些研究对不同国家和地区住宿业的能耗和碳排放进行了核算(表1),并证实这些能耗值和排放量相对于很多行业都偏高(Warnken et al, 2005; Erdogan et al, 2007; Beccali et al, 2009; Rosselló-Batle et al, 2010; Taylor et al, 2010; Rahman et al, 2012; Teng et al, 2012)。在一些国家和地区,如新加坡、中国香港等,住宿业甚至已经被列入碳排放强度最大的建筑单元(Wu, 2010; Chan, 2012; Lai, 2015)。Santamouris(1996)对希腊158家酒店能耗的核算结果显示,酒店是仅次于医院能耗最高的建筑存量(图1),相应的碳排放也很高。
已有研究表明,虽然住宿业并不经常为环保关注的重点,但是却有极大的减排和降低不必要损耗的潜力(Rahman et al, 2012)。许多学者通过将住宿业能耗与同样以家居功能为主体的城市民居能耗进行对比的方式阐述了住宿业的节能减碳潜力。其研究显示,住宿业的能耗强度是普通城市民居的2.1倍(Saridar et al, 2002)、甚至5~15倍(Bohdanowicz, 2006; Dalton et al, 2009b),节能减碳空间巨大。Fortuny等(2008)对西班牙巴利阿里群岛的研究结论也证明了这一点。研究显示,如果该岛所有酒店都能充分利用能源、注重节能降耗,那么整个群岛酒店业的用电量至少可以节约14%。而在住宿行业中,高星级、高档次住宿企业的节能减碳空间尤为巨大。虽然同样为宾客提供旅居服务,但由于顾客对不同住宿类型的服务要求差别较大,进而能耗和碳排放差别非常大。Beccali等(2009)的研究显示,不同类型住宿业能耗从25 MJ/晚到284 MJ/晚;Gössling(2002)对全球不同住宿类型的平均能耗和碳排放进行了估算,结果发现全球不同住宿类型的单位能耗从私人旅馆的25 MJ/(晚·床)到高档次酒店的130 MJ/(晚·床),CO2的总排放量则在1.8~55.7 Mt/年之间。可见,住宿业特别是高能耗的酒店建筑在提高能耗效率和减少碳排放方面潜力巨大。此后多位学者(Wang et al, 2013; Tsai et al, 2014; Lai, 2015)的研究也证实了这一结论。黄崎等(2014)通过跟踪调查研究发现：除了比较公认的高能耗、高排放的高星级酒店外,中国数量巨大的建筑时间在10~20年的二、三星级酒店,其群体节能减碳潜力也很大,不容忽视。
表1 不同国家和地区住宿业的能耗和碳排放
Tab 1 Energy use and carbon emissions of the tourist accommodation industry in selected countries or areas and globally
| 国家或地区 | 住宿类型 | 能源消耗/(GJ/a) | 碳排放/(Mt/a) | 核算年份 | 资料来源 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 全球 | 住宿业 | 5×108 | 80.5 | 2001 | Gössling, 2002 |
| 新西兰(加总) | 住宿业 | 2885 | Becken et al, 2001 | ||
| 瑞士 | 非住宅住宿设施(酒店、餐馆、学生宿舍 ) | 7700 | 2002 | SEA, 2003 | |
| 中国香港(预测) | 住宿业 | 3.9×106 | 0.7 | 2003 | Chan, 2002 |
| 欧洲 | 住宿业 | 1.4×108 | >10 | CHOSEa, 2001; Bohdanowiczb, 2005 | |
| 中国长三角地区 | 住宿业 | 6.6 | 2011 | 陶玉国等, 2013 |
目前,住宿业在实践中节能减碳发展面临较多困境(Rahman et al, 2012),因此学界关于住宿业节能减碳研究成果较多的集中于探讨其节能减碳发展的障碍因素,以下从主要的利益相关者视角总结住宿业节能减碳发展的障碍因素。
图1 希腊不同建筑类型的年均能耗总量(
Fig.1 Average annual total energy consumption in different categories of Hellenic buildings (
2.2.1 政府及相关机构方面
政府及相关机构不仅是法律法规的决策者和起草者,其对于行业节能减碳的宣传、引导、推广以及资金和政策的支持等都直接影响住宿业的低碳化发展。由于能耗与碳排放比较隐形,目前各国政府对于住宿业节能减碳发展主要停留在倡议阶段(何奕霏等, 2014)。Stabler等(1997)年调查则发现：由于相关主体对节能减碳措施可能带来的效益与价值缺乏清晰的认识,相关节能减碳举措显得既零碎又迟缓。相关研究也显示(Stabler et al, 1997; Becken, 2005; Dalton et al, 2008; Lai et al, 2012),虽然近年来美国、斐济、英国和澳大利亚等国家出台了一些关于住宿业节能减碳发展的条文和规定,但实施效果并不十分理想,一些法规甚至从未付诸实施过。而一些发展中国家,如土耳其(Erdogan et al, 2007)、越南(Trung et al, 2005)、加纳(Mensah et al, 2006)等一直到21世纪初还未关注住宿业的能耗与碳排放。总体而言,迄今为止无论在法律、经济还是技术上,各国政府都未能切实有效地降低住宿业的能耗与碳排放(Gössling et al, 2016)。
2.2.2 住宿行业方面
首先,住宿业以数量非常庞大的中小企业为主,单个企业的能耗和碳排放并不显著(Kirk, 1995),同时住宿业的环境影响相对制造业等较为隐形(Filimonau et al, 2011),因此在惯常思维中,经常将以提供服务为主体的住宿业划为低能耗、低排放产业。相应地,整个行业在积极应对环境问题方面比较缓慢和滞后。此外,住宿业与其他建筑部门相比,在能源标杆管理(Chan, 2012)、能源规划(Trung et al, 2005)、建筑能源改造(Xu et al, 2013)等具体节能降耗战略行动方面也比较迟缓。
其次,住宿业在新能源和新技术等的运用方面比较滞后,不利于节能减碳的开展。Dalton等(2009a)调查研究显示,由于缺少相关知识与技术,很多住宿企业经营者对可再生能源供应系统和一些节能减碳新技术,如太阳能、风能发电可靠性缺乏信任,也无法评估投资产出比,因此在新能源和新技术的运用方面不够热衷。如泰国、新加坡、中国香港等国家和地区的一些酒店,在厂商的鼓吹和政府的绿色行动号召下,开始应用太阳隔热膜来降低能耗,但由于尚无有力数据证明该技术的减碳效果,故其推广受到了限制(Chan et al, 2008)。
再次,多项调查研究显示,住宿业从业者整体的可持续意识比较弱,很多经营者认为旅游业基本不会对环境和社会产生负面影响(Becken et al, 2001; Chan, 2005)。Becken(2005)的调查研究发现：一些住宿企业经营者甚至不关注能耗和温室气体排放等环境问题,在日常经营中也不监测企业的能耗。目前在住宿企业的运营中,大的连锁酒店通常会用kWh、MJ和m3等单位来记录消耗的能源和水,但是这种能耗报告一般不能反映不同能源使用带来的环境成本(Chan, 2005),对于那些基本没有工程背景的经营者来说意义不大,因此也无法引起他们的关注并采取节能降耗行动。而小规模的住宿企业能耗不高,对应的温室气体排放也很少,多数企业主们由于节能带来的收益甚微,不愿意去遵循节能和环保倡议(Kirk, 1995)。但是由于小规模住宿企业数量非常庞大,虽然其单个能耗不高,但整体运营的能耗和碳排放却不容忽视。住宿业内部在环境方面的意识和兴趣缺失是住宿业节能减碳发展的一大障碍。
最后,住宿企业引导顾客和员工实施节能减碳难度较大。很多住宿企业经营者在实施节能减碳战略时,遭遇的最大挑战都是如何在保证服务品质的基础上提出切实可行的行动策略(Rahman et al, 2012)。住宿企业的管理者都希望顾客住得舒适,顾客在消费过程中也不会特别关注节能(Taylor et al, 2010)。因此在住宿企业中要实施节能减碳战略有一个前提,即不能降低顾客的舒适度。很多经营者就是因为担心会降低顾客满意度,在引导顾客节能减碳方面基本没有作为(Becken, 2005; Rahman et al, 2012)。Erdogan等2007年研究显示：有些住宿企业虽然已经开始尝试实施一些节能减碳措施,但是一旦这些措施与顾客满意度相冲突时,企业往往会放弃前者。Becken(2005)则发现多数已在积极教育员工践行节能减碳的住宿企业,往往认为此举收效甚微,其原因在于员工在日常工作中开展节能降耗需要顾客的配合和管理层的监督。
2.2.3 消费者方面
早期主流研究结果均表明,很多旅游消费者对住宿业的能耗与碳排放认识不足,一些有所意识的消费者践行节能减碳行为的积极性也不高(Kirk, 1995; Kasim, 2004; Warnken et al, 2004)。紧接着,Becken (2005)更为详细地指出：虽然很多消费者对于住宿业带来的气候与环境影响问题有兴趣,但是多数消费者并不了解住宿业运营如何影响气候变化,分不清绿色酒店产品、低碳产品等,甚至会将气候变化与其他的环境和文化问题相混淆;还有为数不少的消费者认为住宿业是低能耗、低排放行业。但多项调查研究则显示(Dalton et al, 2008; Han et al, 2011; Wang et al, 2013; Xu et al, 2013)：绝大多数旅游者具备节能减碳意识,更倾向于入住有环保措施的绿色酒店;并且有为数不少的旅游者愿意为入住环境友好型的绿色酒店产品而多支付一些费用(Masau et al, 2003)。但是在实际的入住体验中,通常旅游者倾向于将他们的度假经历看作是自由与无约束的时间,因此旅游者多数不会特别关注环境保护(Warnken et al, 2004)。Kasim(2004)对马来西亚槟榔屿游客的调查结果就显示,多数宾客仅习惯于使用节能灯和出门时将房卡作为取电牌关闭电源,在其他方面则愿意选择非环保型产品,比如一次性肥皂、每天更换干净的毛巾、开空调。Lee等(2010)关于酒店绿色形象的调查研究也证实了住宿业宾客绿色意识与行为相矛盾的结论。导致这一现象的主要原因有2个方面：一是 “不关我事”综合症的影响。所谓“不关我事”综合症是指一些公共产品并不是由社会提供,公众如旅游者却希望这些产品由社会免费提供(Dalton et al, 2008)。多数旅游者虽然意识到住宿会带来环境影响,但是不会将这种影响与自身的旅游行为联系起来,倾向于呼吁政府或行业加入环保行动。二是宾客在旅游消费过程中缺乏约束和限制(王群等, 2011)。酒店消费多为离开惯常居住地的异地消费,脱离了原本熟人社会的各类限制与监督,消费者的行为更加自我与自由。没有外界约束与限制,消费者往往不会牺牲舒适度而追求节能环保。可见,积极引导消费者将节能减碳意识转化为实际行动非常必要。
在环境问题成为当今全球关注焦点的时代,住宿业节能减碳不仅可以降低成本和环境影响,还可以吸引投资者、留住员工、培育顾客忠诚(Lee et al, 2010),增强企业竞争力(Oreja-Rodríguez et al, 2012)。何奕霏等(2014)认为：住宿业低碳管理实施的焦点是政策与经济利益之间平衡的结果,也是各利益相关者之间权力相互制约的结果,需要所有利益相关者的共同参与和努力。
2.3.1 政府多举措推动住宿业的节能减碳发展
政府及相关机构虽然是住宿企业节能减碳的间接利益相关者,但对整个行业的节能减碳发展却起着非常重要的作用。政府必须在引导、宣传与监督的基础上,推动住宿业各利益相关者主动、积极响应节能减碳发展战略(何奕霏等, 2014)。Stabler等(1997)认为,政府应尽早出台节能减碳的法律法规、制定强制性的碳排放标准,形成住宿业准入门槛,淘汰不达标的企业。同时,应加快建立住宿业能耗和碳排放的标杆数据库(Lai et al, 2012)和MRV(Monitoring Reporting Verification)评估体系(魏卫, 张琼, 2012),为行业节能减碳行动提供数据审定、核查与认证服务。Bohdanowicz(2006)提出：相关机构应在全球范围内制定住宿业节能减碳的大框架与协定,同时各国政府应根据本国的气候、地理条件以及住宿业经营特点等,起草并制定适合住宿业低碳发展的实施步骤和措施。在相关法律、法规出台硬性要求和监督的前提下,政府和饭店协会等可通过示范工程、教育、培训以及经济刺激与奖励等多种方式引导企业主动参与、走可持续发展道路(Stabler et al, 1997);还可以积极通过教育、培训、经验分享会等形式,为住宿企业节能减碳提供知识和技术支撑;同时,诸如专项基金支持、环保奖励、税务倾斜、贷款保障等经济推动和刺激则可有效吸引相关企业加入节能减碳行动(Chan et al, 2002; Tsai et al, 2014)。刘益(2012)研究发现：合理调整住宿业的档次结构,适当提高人均能耗水平较低的经济型酒店的比重,可助力中国住宿行业实现节能减碳。赵黎明等(2015)则认为,政府部门应当综合运用多种渠道方式加大低碳环保理念、低碳消费的社会和环境效益、参与知识和技能等内容的普及宣传,积极培养低碳环保的社会氛围,重点提高公众对于低碳消费行为的认知和参与度,引导顾客消费观念的转变。
2.3.2 住宿企业经营者提高意识,多举措践行节能减碳
住宿企业是节能减排最主要的实施主体(李旭等, 2013)。就住宿企业本身而言,经营者对于先进环保技术的观点是环境管理实施背后的决定因素(López-Gamero et al, 2011)。毫无疑问,开展节能减碳的环保管理可以提高住宿企业的市场竞争力。经营者们主要在于开展环保管理的投资回报率是多少(Rahman et al, 2012)。相关研究也显示：恰当地使用可再生能源(Becken, 2005)、在热带地区使用太阳隔热膜(Chan et al, 2008)、加入低能低耗认证(Yusof et al, 2013)等投资回报率较高,可带来较好的节能减碳效果。Oluseyi等(2016)则针对自主发电酒店拟定了单位客房的能耗排放标准以推进节能减碳。Rosselló-Batle等(2010)认为,经营者应重视企业全生命周期特别是建设期的能耗与碳排放分析。此外,通过积极塑造绿色低碳的企业形象(刘益, 2012),设立能源低碳管理部门、节能研究中心和节能奖(Chan et al, 2002),开展专项培训(Bohdanowicz, 2006),扩大室外绿化以固碳(魏卫, 雷鹏, 张琼, 2012)等可达到较好的节能减碳效果;而合理的建筑设计、材料选用、功能布局、空间利用和设施配置等则可从源头开始节能减碳(刘益, 2012)。
2.3.3 宾客积极转变消费观念,实践节能低碳的消费行为
宾客是住宿企业服务的对象,也是践行节能减碳的主体之一。Tsai(2014)就提到,住宿业实施节能减排战略离不开宾客的配合与参与。目前,多数宾客都意识到住宿企业实施节能设计非常重要,但是践行节能减碳行为的自觉性不够(Kirk, 1995; Kasim, 2004)。因此住宿企业面临的最大问题是如何在实践中引导顾客将节能减碳意识转化成实际行为。多项研究均证实：在兼顾环保管理和舒适度的前提下,消费者倾向于环境友好型住宿企业,一些环境友好行为可以提高顾客满意度(Mensah, 2006; Butler, 2008; Lee et al, 2010)。赵黎明等(2015)的研究结果显示,公众在住宿企业消费过程中,决策是否进行节能减排等一般低碳行为时,会首先关注实施该行为对自身利益的影响;公众的感知利益越大,越容易实施一般低碳消费行为。因此,住宿企业应加强低碳设施与服务建设,降低顾客低碳消费的经济与时间成本,在保持顾客舒适度的同时提高其感知利益;同时,在对宾客服务过程中,应注意观察、沟通与摸索,通过绿色标识、环保提醒、顾客积分奖励、顾客绿色信用、顾客奖励计划(Trung et al, 2005)等多种方式,引导顾客主动参与节能减碳行动,进而达到节能减碳与顾客满意的双赢。
由于全球住宿业的业态丰富、能耗和碳排放较为复杂多变、测算难度较大,早期该领域的研究以定性方法为主(Mavrotas et al, 2006; 高兴等, 2007)。近年来,住宿业能耗和碳排放的定量研究成果快速涌现,多是基于定量核算提出节能减碳的对策建议,更加科学有效。但迄今为止,住宿业尚无被学界和行业公认的能耗和碳排放核算的系统方法体系,下面对已有研究中关于住宿业能耗和碳排放的核算方法进行归纳总结。
已有成果对于住宿业能耗的核算主要从2个角度进行(Tsai et al, 2014)：一是从建筑视角探讨不同酒店建筑类型的用能强度(Energy Use Intensity, EUI),多用单位面积的年能耗量(kWh/(m2·年)表征。该方法的数据主要来源于建筑能耗统计数据库,数据收集的难度较小、核算相对简单方便且成本较低(Wang et al, 2013)。因此,在发达国家和地区用EUI衡量大型住宿建筑和高星级酒店的能耗强度比较普遍,但此法无法核算统计数据缺乏的小型住宿企业的能耗,同时在没有进行建筑能耗统计的国家和地区也不适用。另外,已有多数研究通过将总能耗分摊到酒店建筑总面积而非营业面积来核算EUI,影响了核算结果的科学性(Deng et al, 2000)。二是从住宿企业视角直接核算顾客的人均能耗,收集住宿企业经营的所有能耗数据和顾客数据,进而计算住宿企业每人每晚的平均能耗量,通常用MJ/(人·晚)来表征。此法数据收集难度较大,难以开展大规模核算,但针对小规模住宿企业的核算结果相对较为客观。总体而言,无论是EUI还是顾客人均能源消耗的核算,已有研究均未重视住宿企业能耗与气候、经营等多要素的关系(Deng et al, 2000),核算结果不够精准,对于住宿业节能减耗发展的现实指导性较差。
住宿企业的碳排放主要来自于电力消耗产生的间接碳排放(黄崎等, 2014)以及化石能源消耗等的直接碳排放。目前针对住宿业碳排放的定量测度主要有自上而下法和自下而上法2类(表2)。其中,自上而下法适用于住宿业碳排放的宏观估算与测度,可分为投入产出法、能源消费法和基于温室气体统计数据的自上而下法3种。自下而上法则包含了碳足迹方法和从住宿者人数入手的自下而上法,主要适用于微观测度和精细化分析,测度过程较为复杂。其中碳足迹方法比较适用于测度微观住宿业全生命周期的碳排放,核算结果较为全面精准,但实施难度较大;而从住宿者人数入手的自下而上法则从人均能耗量出发,进行逐级累积、转换与测算,可较为便捷地进行行业和单个企业碳排放核算,目前在住宿业碳排放核算研究中运用最广泛。但是该法多通过大样本抽样调查采集数据,数据收集难度较大,同时容易遗漏住宿企业运行过程中的间接碳排放,因此测算结果通常小于企业的实际排放量。
表2 住宿业碳排放核算的主要方法
Tab 2 The main accounting methods of carbon emissions in the tourist accommodation industry
| 类型 | 方法概述 | 适用范围 | 主要数据来源 | 优点 | 缺 点 | 代表性文献 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 自上而下法 | 投入产出分析法：基于住宿业能源投入与产出进行碳排放核算 | 适用于从宏观和整体上估算行业或者区域的总体碳排放状况,无法开展细分住宿类型的相关研究 | 各国/地区公布的投入产出表 | 数据收集便捷,可以与国民经济其他行业进行横向对比 | 难以对不同等级、不同业态的住宿业进行细化分析 | 高兴等,2007;刘益,2012 |
| 能源消费法'通过剥离出住宿业的能源消耗数据进行碳排放核算 | 各类能源统计年鉴 | 操作便捷 | 能耗剥离系数难以确定 | Liu et al2011; 谢园方等,2012 | ||
| 基于温室气体统计的自上而下法 | 旅游卫星账户,温室气体统计数据 | 操作简单,便于动态跟踪监测和比较(唐承财等, 2012) | 必须建立能耗和温室气体排放统计平台 | Gössling,2002; Perch-Nielsen,2010 | ||
| 自下而上法 | 碳足迹理论与方法(LCA)'基于企业能耗、物质消耗、废弃物排放等数据进行住宿产品全生命周期的碳排放核算 | 适用于从住宿企业个体出发进行碳排放核算,可以进行细分类型核算 | 住宿企业的能源和物质消耗等数据 | 核算结果较为精准、全面 | 操作比较复杂,无法完整收集全生命周期所有数据,难以进行行业间横向对比研究 | 李鹏等,2010;Filimonau et al, 2011;Yi,2011; Lai,2015;杨璐等,2015 |
| 基于单位床位或者单位游客的能耗进行碳排放核算的自下而上法 | 既可以进行单体住宿企业的测算,也可以进行全行业 核算 | 住宿企业床位数或宾客数、能耗相关数据 | 适用性较广,方便开展横向和纵向比较研究 | 数据收集难度较大,合理选择碳排放系数和单位能耗值较为困难,核算结果偏小 | Gössling,2002;Becken,2005;Beccali et al, 2009;石培华等,2011;Lai et al,2012;陶玉国等,2013;沈杨等,2016 |
全球住宿业的节能减碳发展关乎旅游业的可持续发展。目前国外关于住宿业节能减碳的相关研究成果较为丰富,并以高星级住宿企业为主要研究对象,多集中于探讨住宿业节能减碳的障碍因素,开展能耗和碳排放核算研究,在能耗和碳排放的来源识别、结构特点分析等方面取得较大进展,并提出了一些共识性的节能减碳策略;但由于核算框架、方法等未统一,已有核算结果的可比性较差。从研究区域看,已有成果集中于探讨发达国家和地区住宿企业的节能减碳,对发展中国家和地区关注不够;从空间尺度看,区域尺度较为缺乏。而国内住宿业节能减碳的相关研究较为滞后和局限。早期成果多从国家、区域或行业层面探讨住宿业的节能减碳、绿色和低碳管理的必要性和措施等,以定性研究为主。近年来,在引进国外相关测算方法的基础上,基于定量核算住宿企业的能耗和碳排放开展节能减碳研究的成果开始出现,但是在研究深度和系统性方面都有所欠缺。今后中国的住宿业节能减碳研究应从以下几方面展开。
(1) 加强对研究对象的全面把握。由于数据缺乏等原因,国内已有成果多致力于高星级酒店的平均能耗和碳排放核算,分业态进行细化研究的成果较少。虽然高星级、高档次住宿企业的能耗和碳排放潜力巨大,但中国数量庞大的非星级住宿企业的节能减碳研究也不容忽视。未来应加强对不同类型、不同等级住宿企业特别是非星级的社会旅馆、招待所的节能减碳研究。应重视更新数据的采集手段与方法,加强与住宿企业的联系与合作,获取不同类型住宿企业的能耗和碳排放相关基础数据;在准确把握其能耗和碳排放特点、影响因素的基础上,找出不同类型住宿企业节能减碳的潜力和突破口,以指导 实践。
(2) 确立住宿业能耗和碳排放核算框架,构建完善的核算方法体系。无论是能耗核算还是碳排放测度,目前学界都没有公认的测度框架和标准化测度因子,主要依靠引进国外数据经验开展相关定量研究。因此,应尽快根据中国住宿业的发展实际,制定住宿业能源消耗和碳排放的核算清单、确立核算框架,制定相关核算系数并构建完善的核算方法体系,更科学地开展相关研究。在此基础上,核定不同类型、级别、区域住宿企业的能耗和碳排放基准,加快建立中国住宿业能耗和碳排放的标杆数据库,为行业节能减碳行动提供数据审定、核查与认证服务,进而推动住宿业节能减碳发展。
(3) 细化研究内容,更科学地开展住宿业节能减碳研究。进一步细化和完善研究内容,加强住宿企业全生命周期内所有产品与服务的能耗与碳排放核算研究,开展住宿业运营的间接碳排放核算,全面地评价住宿企业不同阶段、不同服务产品的能耗和碳排放状况,并与国民经济其他行业相对比,挖掘节能减碳潜力,为住宿业节能减碳发展提供理论依据。从工程技术和新能源利用等多视角开展住宿业节能减碳研究,分类型、分区域地进行实证分析,提出科学性和针对性的节能减碳策略与措施,指导中国住宿业的节能减碳工作。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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酒店主要产品服务经济-能源-环境系统分析 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2007.04.017 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
利用投入产出分析方法和能耗寿命周期分析方法相结台。建立了主要产品中间生产和最终服务经济-能源-环境系统投入产出综合计算模型；对国内有代表性的八家酒店主要产品服务系统进行了计算与综合分析：结果显示酒店之间投入产出指标值量大相差2倍以上。具有巨大的改进潜力；酒店内部餐饮服务系统是传统的线性开放式经济发展模式的突出代表。应进行蕾业规模调整、合理配置能源种类和消耗比例、重点实施清洁生产。
An analysis on economy-energy-environment system of hotel main industry [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2007.04.017 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
利用投入产出分析方法和能耗寿命周期分析方法相结台。建立了主要产品中间生产和最终服务经济-能源-环境系统投入产出综合计算模型；对国内有代表性的八家酒店主要产品服务系统进行了计算与综合分析：结果显示酒店之间投入产出指标值量大相差2倍以上。具有巨大的改进潜力；酒店内部餐饮服务系统是传统的线性开放式经济发展模式的突出代表。应进行蕾业规模调整、合理配置能源种类和消耗比例、重点实施清洁生产。
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| [2] |
试析酒店核心利益相关者对酒店低碳管理政策的不同响应方式 [J].URL 摘要
在低碳经济的发展模式下,酒店业走向低碳环保的道路已刻不容缓。政府颁布了相关的政策,作为实施主体的酒店企业,对政策的响应程度如何？是否取得了相应的效果？文章在界定四类酒店核心利益相关者即政府管理部门、酒店管理者、酒店员工及消费者的基础上,以本土酒店集团广州嘉逸酒店管理集团为例,对管理者、员工、消费者进行了深度访谈。结果发现：不同利益相关者从各自不同的利益基点出发,政府停留在倡议阶段,酒店管理者、员工配合度有限,消费者存在不理解现象,政策的实施效果不够理想。在目前阶段应建立以政府强有力推动为源动力的驱动机制。
A study on hotel core stakeholders' response to the hotel's policy of low-carbon management [J].URL 摘要
在低碳经济的发展模式下,酒店业走向低碳环保的道路已刻不容缓。政府颁布了相关的政策,作为实施主体的酒店企业,对政策的响应程度如何？是否取得了相应的效果？文章在界定四类酒店核心利益相关者即政府管理部门、酒店管理者、酒店员工及消费者的基础上,以本土酒店集团广州嘉逸酒店管理集团为例,对管理者、员工、消费者进行了深度访谈。结果发现：不同利益相关者从各自不同的利益基点出发,政府停留在倡议阶段,酒店管理者、员工配合度有限,消费者存在不理解现象,政策的实施效果不够理想。在目前阶段应建立以政府强有力推动为源动力的驱动机制。
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酒店业碳排放评估与节能减排潜力研究 [J].An assessment of carbon emissions and the potentiality of energy-saving in hospitality [J]. |
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昆明市四星级酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算与分析 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2010.03.009 URL Magsci 摘要
温室气体排放引起的全球变暖已经成为人类面临的重大环境问题.碳 足迹基于生命周期评价,对服务或商品所产生的温室气体排放量进行测度.将碳足迹引入旅游研究,对旅游业的重要组成部分--酒店住宿产品进行生命周期评价, 构建了酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算模型,并实证于昆明市6家四星级酒店.结果表明:酒店住宿产品碳足迹主要来自运营期,约占整个生命周期的72.71%;来源 包括能源消耗、垃圾释放和制冷剂泄露3个方面,其中直接能源消耗约占60.98%;主要影响因素是消耗量和排放系数,酒店规模对碳足迹的影响受到了环境温 度等其他因素的扰动,作用并不明显.研究有利于寻找在旅游产品设计、生产和供应等过程中降低温室气体排放的机会,亦可为旅游业的"节能减排"提供理论支 撑.
Carbon footprint calculation and analysis of accommodation services in four-star hotels of Kunming [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2010.03.009 URL Magsci 摘要
温室气体排放引起的全球变暖已经成为人类面临的重大环境问题.碳 足迹基于生命周期评价,对服务或商品所产生的温室气体排放量进行测度.将碳足迹引入旅游研究,对旅游业的重要组成部分--酒店住宿产品进行生命周期评价, 构建了酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算模型,并实证于昆明市6家四星级酒店.结果表明:酒店住宿产品碳足迹主要来自运营期,约占整个生命周期的72.71%;来源 包括能源消耗、垃圾释放和制冷剂泄露3个方面,其中直接能源消耗约占60.98%;主要影响因素是消耗量和排放系数,酒店规模对碳足迹的影响受到了环境温 度等其他因素的扰动,作用并不明显.研究有利于寻找在旅游产品设计、生产和供应等过程中降低温室气体排放的机会,亦可为旅游业的"节能减排"提供理论支 撑.
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住宿业碳排放研究进展 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.03.010 Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
住宿业作为旅游业的主要用能部门之一,其碳减排成为应对全球气候变化的一个重要部分,日益受到学术界重视。通过梳理和总结国内外相关文献,可以看出:国内外住宿业碳排放的研究内容集中在住宿业直接和间接用能碳排放的计算、碳减排影响因素、碳减排措施等方面;研究方法以定量的居多,各种统计分析法都有所涉及,国内住宿业碳排放的研究比国外相对滞后。总体上学术界对住宿业碳排放的研究内容由浅入深,研究方法由简单到复杂,为住宿业的节能减排提供了科学依据,也为低碳旅游发展研究奠定了基础。
Research progress on carbon emissions in accommodation industry [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.03.010 Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
住宿业作为旅游业的主要用能部门之一,其碳减排成为应对全球气候变化的一个重要部分,日益受到学术界重视。通过梳理和总结国内外相关文献,可以看出:国内外住宿业碳排放的研究内容集中在住宿业直接和间接用能碳排放的计算、碳减排影响因素、碳减排措施等方面;研究方法以定量的居多,各种统计分析法都有所涉及,国内住宿业碳排放的研究比国外相对滞后。总体上学术界对住宿业碳排放的研究内容由浅入深,研究方法由简单到复杂,为住宿业的节能减排提供了科学依据,也为低碳旅游发展研究奠定了基础。
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中国酒店业能源消耗水平与低碳化经营路径分析 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.01.017 URL Magsci 摘要
低碳旅游是在低碳经济背景下旅游管理研究的热点问题。旅游业虽然被认为是低碳经济的一个重要组成部分，但关于旅游业的能源消耗水平研究一直缺乏定量研究成果。文章以中国酒店业为例，采用投入产出分析方法，对中国酒店业的能源消耗水平进行了定量分析。研究表明，中国酒店业每万元的总产出需要消耗330．99千克标准煤。通过产业部门间的比较研究，发现中国酒店业整体仍然处于高耗能阶段，酒店业在节能减排以及发展低碳经济方面还不具有比较优势；通过比较研究，发现中国酒店业能源消耗水平与部分发达国家相比，还存在很大差距；通过与本地居民能源消耗水平的比较。发现酒店住客的日常能源消耗量远远高于城市居民日常生活的能源消耗量。最后，针对中国酒店业在能源消耗方面存在的问题，提出了中国酒店业低碳化经营的发展路径。
Analysis of energy consumption level and approaches to low-carbon management in lodging industry of China [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.01.017 URL Magsci 摘要
低碳旅游是在低碳经济背景下旅游管理研究的热点问题。旅游业虽然被认为是低碳经济的一个重要组成部分，但关于旅游业的能源消耗水平研究一直缺乏定量研究成果。文章以中国酒店业为例，采用投入产出分析方法，对中国酒店业的能源消耗水平进行了定量分析。研究表明，中国酒店业每万元的总产出需要消耗330．99千克标准煤。通过产业部门间的比较研究，发现中国酒店业整体仍然处于高耗能阶段，酒店业在节能减排以及发展低碳经济方面还不具有比较优势；通过比较研究，发现中国酒店业能源消耗水平与部分发达国家相比，还存在很大差距；通过与本地居民能源消耗水平的比较。发现酒店住客的日常能源消耗量远远高于城市居民日常生活的能源消耗量。最后，针对中国酒店业在能源消耗方面存在的问题，提出了中国酒店业低碳化经营的发展路径。
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城市酒店业的碳排放核算及低碳指标分析 [J].Carbon emission accounting and low carbon indicator analysis for urban hotel industry [J]. |
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中国旅游业能源消耗与CO2排放量的初步估算 [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201102009 URL Magsci 摘要
随着旅游产业规模的不断壮大，旅游业对气候、环境的影响日益引起国际机构和社会各界 的关注。旅游业能源利用及二氧化碳排放是旅游对环境影响的重要驱动力之一，成为近5 年来 世界旅游研究的新兴热点。旅游产业特点决定了旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量的测算是 个世界性的难题。本文采用“自下而上”法，通过文献研究与数理统计方法，首次系统估算中国 旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量。结果表明，2008 年，中国旅游业消耗能源428.30 PJ，占中国 能源总消耗量的0.51%；排放二氧化碳51.34 Mt，占全国二氧化碳总排放量的0.86%。旅游业是 低耗能、低排放、低碳产业，是应对气候变化和节能减排的优势产业，应该成为低碳经济发展的 重要领域。
A rough estimation of energy consumption and CO2 emission in tourism sector of China [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/xb201102009 URL Magsci 摘要
随着旅游产业规模的不断壮大，旅游业对气候、环境的影响日益引起国际机构和社会各界 的关注。旅游业能源利用及二氧化碳排放是旅游对环境影响的重要驱动力之一，成为近5 年来 世界旅游研究的新兴热点。旅游产业特点决定了旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量的测算是 个世界性的难题。本文采用“自下而上”法，通过文献研究与数理统计方法，首次系统估算中国 旅游业能源消耗和二氧化碳排放量。结果表明，2008 年，中国旅游业消耗能源428.30 PJ，占中国 能源总消耗量的0.51%；排放二氧化碳51.34 Mt，占全国二氧化碳总排放量的0.86%。旅游业是 低耗能、低排放、低碳产业，是应对气候变化和节能减排的优势产业，应该成为低碳经济发展的 重要领域。
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旅游业碳排放研究进展 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.04.008 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
全球气候变化与资源环境问题对人类可持续发展带来了巨大冲击,节能减排已成为全球社会经济和环境可持续发展的必然要求.科学分析旅游业碳排放有助于推动旅游地的旅游业及其关联产业的节能减排与可持续发展.本文概述旅游业碳排放的研究历程,分析和评述了旅游业碳排放的研究方法,然后从区域旅游和旅游业各部门的碳排放测度、旅游碳足迹、旅游业碳排放的影响、应对旅游业碳排放影响的对策等5 个方面,综述旅游业碳排放主要的研究内容.最后对中国旅游业碳排放研究提出了建议.
Research progress on carbon emissions in tourism industry [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.04.008 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
全球气候变化与资源环境问题对人类可持续发展带来了巨大冲击,节能减排已成为全球社会经济和环境可持续发展的必然要求.科学分析旅游业碳排放有助于推动旅游地的旅游业及其关联产业的节能减排与可持续发展.本文概述旅游业碳排放的研究历程,分析和评述了旅游业碳排放的研究方法,然后从区域旅游和旅游业各部门的碳排放测度、旅游碳足迹、旅游业碳排放的影响、应对旅游业碳排放影响的对策等5 个方面,综述旅游业碳排放主要的研究内容.最后对中国旅游业碳排放研究提出了建议.
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区域旅馆业碳排放分类测度研究: 以长三角为例 [J].
Study of measuring carbon dioxide emissions for regional classification accommodation: A case study of Yangtze River Delta [J].
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低碳旅游发展的困境与对策 [J].The predicament and countermeasures of low-carbon tourism development [J]. |
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饭店低碳化水平评价指标的构建及实证研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-575X.2012.01.008 URL 摘要
本研究以粤港澳中高星级饭店管理人员和国内外饭店研究者为调研对象,在文献分析、专家访谈、问卷调查的基础上,通过因子分析法对样本数据进行深入分析,提出了饭店低碳化水平评价指标体系。该指标体系由分属6个维度的21项指标构成,其6个维度被命名为:碳减排措施指标、低碳管理指标、低碳引导指标、碳排放指标、碳汇指标和碳源构成指标。研究结果表明:碳减排措施指标、低碳管理指标及碳排放指标是评价饭店低碳化水平的重要因素;而样本分组比较则指出,饭店管理人员与研究者、港澳与内地饭店管理人员在对某些评价指标的认同上存在一定的差异。
An empirical study on the construction of the index system for evaluating hotel low-carbonization [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-575X.2012.01.008 URL 摘要
本研究以粤港澳中高星级饭店管理人员和国内外饭店研究者为调研对象,在文献分析、专家访谈、问卷调查的基础上,通过因子分析法对样本数据进行深入分析,提出了饭店低碳化水平评价指标体系。该指标体系由分属6个维度的21项指标构成,其6个维度被命名为:碳减排措施指标、低碳管理指标、低碳引导指标、碳排放指标、碳汇指标和碳源构成指标。研究结果表明:碳减排措施指标、低碳管理指标及碳排放指标是评价饭店低碳化水平的重要因素;而样本分组比较则指出,饭店管理人员与研究者、港澳与内地饭店管理人员在对某些评价指标的认同上存在一定的差异。
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基于层次分析法的饭店低碳化水平评价指标体系研究 [J].Study on the index system of hotel low carbonization [J]. |
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长三角地区旅游业能源消耗的CO2排放测度研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2012030005 URL Magsci 摘要
旅游业与气候环境变化息息相关,低碳旅游是旅游业对气候变化的积极响应,也是低碳经济的延伸,将会给全球旅游业带来深远影响。但目前国内大部分有关低碳旅游的研究仍停留在定性阶段,尤其是旅游业碳排放的测度研究仍比较薄弱。本文在深入分析和总结国内外已有研究的基础上,以能源消耗平衡表为依据,借鉴＂旅游消费剥离系数＂概念,构建出符合我国目前统计口径的旅游业碳排放测度方法。并以长江三角洲地区为研究范围,对江苏、浙江和上海三地旅游业碳排放进行测度和对比分析。研究表明：目前在长三角地区,旅游业碳排放总量持续攀升,并与旅游业总收入成正相关。其中旅游交通仓储和邮电业碳排放在旅游业碳排放总量中占主导地位,而旅游餐饮、住宿和购物过程中的碳排放也不容忽视。旅游收入增长与旅游低碳化发展的矛盾仍然十分突出,迫切需要转变旅游业发展方式。
Measuring carbon dioxide emissions from energy consumption by tourism in Yangtze River Delta [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2012030005 URL Magsci 摘要
旅游业与气候环境变化息息相关,低碳旅游是旅游业对气候变化的积极响应,也是低碳经济的延伸,将会给全球旅游业带来深远影响。但目前国内大部分有关低碳旅游的研究仍停留在定性阶段,尤其是旅游业碳排放的测度研究仍比较薄弱。本文在深入分析和总结国内外已有研究的基础上,以能源消耗平衡表为依据,借鉴＂旅游消费剥离系数＂概念,构建出符合我国目前统计口径的旅游业碳排放测度方法。并以长江三角洲地区为研究范围,对江苏、浙江和上海三地旅游业碳排放进行测度和对比分析。研究表明：目前在长三角地区,旅游业碳排放总量持续攀升,并与旅游业总收入成正相关。其中旅游交通仓储和邮电业碳排放在旅游业碳排放总量中占主导地位,而旅游餐饮、住宿和购物过程中的碳排放也不容忽视。旅游收入增长与旅游低碳化发展的矛盾仍然十分突出,迫切需要转变旅游业发展方式。
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山岳型景区酒店与城市中心酒店碳足迹比较分析 [J].URL 摘要
酒店业是旅游业的核心产业,是旅游业节能减排的重要领域。本文选择山岳型景区酒店与城市中心酒店作为比较对象,通过实地调研获取相关数据,采用碳足迹分析方法,从总量、部门和效率等3方面,对两类酒店的碳足迹进行比较分析。结果显示：（1）两类酒店碳足迹总量均存在明显的季节性,但影响季节性的因素不同;（2）两类酒店能源利用方式、容积率、单位建筑面积碳足迹相差较大;（3）狮林大酒店人均碳足迹与气温、客房出租率呈负相关;（4）狮林大酒店和天都国际大酒店客房出租率分别在65%—76%、31.5%—49.8%时能源使用效率最高;（5）酒店运营导致了生态影响和生态责任在空间上的区际转移。
Comparative analysis of carbon footprint between hotels in mountain resorts and city [J].URL 摘要
酒店业是旅游业的核心产业,是旅游业节能减排的重要领域。本文选择山岳型景区酒店与城市中心酒店作为比较对象,通过实地调研获取相关数据,采用碳足迹分析方法,从总量、部门和效率等3方面,对两类酒店的碳足迹进行比较分析。结果显示：（1）两类酒店碳足迹总量均存在明显的季节性,但影响季节性的因素不同;（2）两类酒店能源利用方式、容积率、单位建筑面积碳足迹相差较大;（3）狮林大酒店人均碳足迹与气温、客房出租率呈负相关;（4）狮林大酒店和天都国际大酒店客房出租率分别在65%—76%、31.5%—49.8%时能源使用效率最高;（5）酒店运营导致了生态影响和生态责任在空间上的区际转移。
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| [16] |
公众酒店低碳消费行为影响因素分析: 基于天津市酒店顾客的调查数据 [J].
Factors influencing the public low-carbon consumption behavior in hotels: Based on the survey of Tianjin hotel customers [J].
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| [17] |
An empirical approach for ranking environmental and energy saving measures in the hotel sector [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.029 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Energy planners and decision makers can easily use this approach for defining, implementing and monitoring energy efficiency as well as sustainability policies in the tourist sector of a given geographical area, starting from a limited set of data. The method has been proposed by authors within the assessment of the Sicilian Energy Masterplan.
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| [18] |
Harmonising climate change adaptation and mitigation: The case of tourist resorts in Fiji [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.001 URL 摘要
Tourism in island states is vulnerable to climate change because it may result in detrimental changes in relation to extreme events, sea level rise, transport and communication interruption. This study analyses adaptation to climate change by tourist resorts in Fiji, as well as their potential to reduce climate change through reductions in carbon dioxide emissions. Interviews, site visitations, and an accommodation survey were undertaken. Many operators already prepare for climate-related events and therefore adapt to potential impacts resulting from climate change. Reducing emissions is not important to operators; however, decreasing energy costs for economic reasons is practised. Recommendations for further initiatives are made and synergies between the adaptation and mitigation approaches are explored.
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| [19] |
Energy consumption patterns in the accommodation sector: The New Zealand case [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(01)00229-4 URL 摘要
The concept of sustainability is more and more established as an integral component in modern economies. A major threat to sustainability is the escalating demand for energy resulting in the depletion of natural resources and a concomitant threat to the global climate from the emissions produced. Although tourism and its sub-sectors, such as transport, accommodation, and attractions, constitute an increasingly important part of many economies, their contribution to energy use is not well researched. Particularly, in popular tourist destinations, such as New Zealand, tourism could be a significant contributor to energy consumption. As every tourist relies on the provision of accommodation, this is considered a core sub-sector within tourism. Previous case studies have indicated that accommodation is an energy-intense sector, however, comprehensive research on energy use patterns is missing. This paper contributes to the understanding of energy use within the accommodation sector by analysing the New Zealand scenario. The main objectives are the exploration of differences in energy consumption between hotel, bed and breakfast, motel, backpacker, and campground accommodation categories, and the role of factors such as business size in this consumption. Based on this analysis benchmarks are established for each category for total annual energy use and energy intensities, such as energy use per visitor night. When aggregated the total energy use of the accommodation sector in New Zealand is also estimated. The results reveal that hotels are the largest (net and per capita) energy consumers in the accommodation sector, making up 67% of the total 1.74 PJ consumed in 1999 in the accommodation sector. This constitutes 4.4% of the commercial sector's energy use and 0.4% of the total energy use in New Zealand.
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| [20] |
European hoteliers' environmental attitudes: Greening the business [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0010880404273891 URL 摘要
ABSTRACT Although many hotels rely on the natural environment to attract guests, a survey of European hoteliers finds that environmental stewardship has taken a backseat to other operational concerns in many cases. Nevertheless, the surveyed hoteliers recognized that the hotel industry would do well to be more environmentally conscious. Managers in chain-affiliated hotels were generally more likely to pay attention to environmental issues than were independent operators, many of whom run small properties. The respondents noted that few hotel guests demand that hotels maintain environmental programs.
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| [21] |
Environmental awareness and initiatives in the Swedish and Polish hotel industries: Survey results [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2005.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Despite its importance, environmental stewardship is not always the top priority in the hotel industry in Europe. This study investigates the influence of the geo-political, economic and socio-cultural context of a country on the environmental attitudes and pro-ecological initiatives incorporated in this sector. To illustrate the differences, hotels in Sweden and Poland were targeted and a total of 349 hoteliers participated in an e-mail-based survey. The study reveals that hotel operators generally recognize the need for environmental protection and are involved in a number of activities. The economic situation and pro-environmental efforts initiated by the government were found to have an impact on certain aspects of hoteliers’ attitudes and actions. The survey has further indicated the two major directions that need to be followed when introducing environmental sustainability into the hotel industry. The first involves incorporating responsible technical and behavioural practices in the sector. The second highlights the necessity of initiating greater demand for “green” practices from the customers.
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| [22] |
The compelling 'hard case' for 'green' hotel development [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965508322174 URL 摘要
Hotel developers and managers may be wary of the current emphasis on "green" hotel development, because such trends have come and gone in the past. This time, however, consumers will almost certainly continue to demand that hotels join other commercial real estate operators in constructing and operating their buildings in accordance with standards established by the U.S. Green Building Council....
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| [23] |
Partial analysis of the environmental costs generated by hotels in Hong Kong [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2004.10.008 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper investigates the environmental costs attributable to the various activities involved in operating a hotel such as energy usage, water consumption, and solid waste disposal. A control cost approach and a pro-rated model were used in environmental costing. A holistic analysis of the environmental costs was then made. It was found that, in the early 1990s, the environmental costs incurred in controlling air pollution was higher than for other types of pollution. However, the situation changed during the late 1990s as the government invested more in building large-scale sewage treatment systems and landfills. At present, the environmental costs attributable to water protection and solid waste management have been larger than the environmental costs of air pollution. This implies that hotel operators should place a greater focus on mitigating the pressure on the environment from the consumption of water and disposal of solid waste. Also based on the methodologies, recommendations on environmental accounting on three levels are made.
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| [24] |
Energy benchmarking in support of low carbon hotels: Developments, challenges, and approaches in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.02.001 URL Magsci 摘要
By conducting in-depth interviews with hotel engineers, system designers, and professors to identify the challenges faced by current hotel energy benchmarking, we gain deeper insights on the development of hotel energy benchmarking that reflect the current situation in China. A taxonomical approach focusing on four directions of hotel energy benchmarking is thus proposed. By coordinating with various types of stakeholders and implementing the proposed development plan, the local Construction Ministry, Tourism Bureau, and Energy Improvement Office can realize this conceptual hotel energy benchmarking in China.
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| [25] |
Prediction of pollutant emission through electricity consumption by the hotel industry in Hong Kong [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4319(02)00027-0 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper estimates the quantity of pollutants produced by the hotel industry through its electricity consumption. A survey of 17 hotels in Hong Kong was carried out to collect 3 years of energy consumption data. Regression analysis indicated that gross floor area was a major and statistically accepted factor in explaining the electricity consumption in hotels. It was found that the average electricity consumption was about 34202kW02h/m 2 /year. Then, based on some established pollutant emission factors of coal and natural gas, the amount of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxides, carbon dioxides and particulates created by the hotel industry's electricity usage during a 10-year period from 1988 to 1997 was estimated. The study further predicts the increase in these amounts in 1998–2003 accompanying the rise in the number of hotel properties. The findings indicate that the existing green measures and devices are inadequate to cope with the increase in pollution emission in the near future. We believe that the hotel industry should adopt a more proactive approach to reduce electricity usage and propose the inclusion of environmental reporting in trade journals.
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| [26] |
Energy saving and tourism sustainability: Solar control window film in hotel rooms [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802159636 URL 摘要
This paper investigates solar control film as an energy saver in the fast growing hotel sector in southern China. It investigates claims made for this low-cost retrofitted material in hotel rooms, calibrating reductions in solar gain in summer. It provides reliable and independent data about the performance and economic viability of solar control film in real hotel environments. The study found that, by limiting solar gain, the film helps limit tourism's impact on global warming and climate change. The paper also foreshadows new technical glazing developments.
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| [27] |
CHOSE. 2001. Energy savings by combined heat cooling and power plants (CHCP) in the hotel sector [EB/OL]. |
| [28] |
A survey of tourist attitudes to renewable energy supply in Australian hotel accommodation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2007.12.016 URL Magsci 摘要
The results of a survey are presented describing the attitudes of Australian tourists to micro-generation renewable energy supply (RES) for hotel accommodation. The average positive response rate to all questions was above 50%, implying a desire by tourists for environmentally friendly accommodation and renewable energy supply. Tourists indicated that they perceived RES to be reliable and expressed a willingness to cooperate with RES initiatives and possible resultant inconveniences. However, there were mixed opinions with regard to consumer willingness to pay for the product. Of the 49% of respondents who were willing to pay extra for RES, 92% replied they would pay between 1% and 5%. Analysis of the variation in response due to accommodation type revealed a ‘city’ hotel versus ‘eco-resort’ difference. Likewise, a breakdown of responses according to country of origin indicated that Australians had a more positive attitude to RES than overseas visitors, including Japanese and Americans. While no variation in response was detected according to gender, age had a measurable bearing on response, with older guests returning a higher positive response rate. Visual queue questions querying aesthetic opinions and ‘not-in-my-backyard’ (NIMBY) attitude to RES revealed that there was virtually no opposition to photovoltaics. Opinions regarding wind energy conversion systems (WECS) varied with type and location, with rooftop WECS receiving more acceptance than stand-alone varieties. A high level of visual acceptance was shown by respondents for onshore wind farms located close to a tourist accommodation centre, with less enthusiasm for offshore farms. A strong NIMBY attitude to WECS was not observed among Australian or local respondents.
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| [29] |
a. Case study feasibility analysis of renewable energy supply options for small to medium-sized tourist accommodations [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.06.018 URL Magsci 摘要
This paper outlines a feasibility analysis of renewable energy supply (RES) for small to medium-scale tourist operations (less than 100 beds) dependent on stand-alone supplies. The analysis utilised the power load data from three accommodation case studies that had RES/hybrids already installed. The accommodation sites, chosen from diverse locations within Australia, varied in both climatic and geographic characteristics. The assessment criteria for the analysis were net present cost (NPC), renewable factor (RF) and payback time. The specific operational characteristics of the tourism accommodation sector, such as 24-h operation, comfort provision and low tolerance for failure, necessitates a separate assessment of RES viability for this sector, rather than relying on similar assessments from other commercial and domestic sectors, which may not be representative. This study utilised RES assessment software, HOMER (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US) in order to compare the present RES/hybrid configuration to diesel generator-only (genset-only), RES-only and optimised RES/hybrid configurations. Analysis of both actual data and modeling results demonstrated that RES can adequately and reliably meet the power demand for stand-alone small to medium-scale tourist accommodations. Optimisation, achieved by further addition of RES to the existing configurations, reduced NPC in the majority of cases, with the added benefit of increased RF. Furthermore, NPC for these optimised RES/hybrid configurations were comparable to the optimised genset-only configurations. Modeling of conversions to RES-only configurations demonstrated this option as uneconomical unless existing RF was already high. Results indicated that wind energy conversion systems (WECS), rather than photovoltaics, were the most economical RES for sampled hybrid systems. For example, the payback time of the WECS/hybrids was approximately 3鈥4 years compared to PV/hybrids at 6鈥7 years. Hydrogen fuel cells and storage systems, whilst technically feasible, were not economically viable for the case studies due to the present high cost of components, especially compared to gensets. Modeling future potential increase in diesel fuel prices and implementation of carbon taxes shows a significant increase in NPC for genset-only configurations compared to RES/hybrid configurations in the sample. Carbon taxes of $50/ton increases NPC by 10% for genset-only systems but increases NPC less than half that amount for RES/hybrid systems. The data and subsequent modeling demonstrate that RES is both technically feasible and economically viable compared to diesel energy supply, for the small to medium-scale tourist operations sampled, dependent on stand-alone power supplies.
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| [30] |
b. Feasibility analysis of renewable energy supply options for a grid-connected large hotel [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.08.012 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study presents an analysis of the technical and financial viability of grid-only, RES-only and grid/RES hybrid power supply configurations for a large-scale grid-connected hotel (over 100 beds). Assessment criteria comprised net present cost (NPC), renewable fraction (RF) and payback time. The RES software HOMER (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US) was utilised as the assessment tool with modeling performed with hourly load data input from a hotel located in a subtropical coastal area of Queensland, Australia. The results demonstrate that RES, in principle, has the potential to supply significant power for a large-scale tourist accommodation, in conjunction with the grid-electricity supply. Optimisation modeling demonstrated that, at 2004 prices, the NPC of the grid/RES hybrid configuration is comparable with the grid-only supply and resulted in a RF of 73%, a payback time of 14 years and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 65%. Optimisation modeling also showed that whilst a RES-only configuration can potentially supply 100% of power demand, such a configuration is presently uneconomical given current electricity costs. Results indicate that wind energy conversion systems (WECS), rather than photovoltaics, are the most economically viable RES technology for large-scale grid-connected operations. Specifically, large-scale WECS (over 1000聽kW) are more efficient and more economical than multiple small-scale WECS (0.1鈥100聽kW). Hydrogen fuel cells and storage are presently uneconomical in grid-connected configurations. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that operations that rely on grid-only supply are more economically susceptible to escalations in electricity costs and the imposition of carbon taxes, in comparison to grid/RES hybrids. Indeed, at present electricity prices, which have nearly quadrupled since 2004, the grid/RES hybrid is more economical over a 20-year span than the grid-only system, with a NPC which is 50% lower, and a payback time of 4.5 years. The analysis demonstrates that RES is both technically feasible and economically viable as an addition to grid-connected supply for large-scale tourist operations, and should become more attractive as costs of conventional supplies increase.
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| [31] |
A study of energy performance of hotel buildings in Hong Kong [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(98)00067-X URL 摘要
A study of energy performance in 16 quality hotels in Hong Kong has been carried out and the results are reported. An average Energy Use Index (EUI) based on unit floor area has been derived for hotel buildings in Hong Kong using energy consumption data for 1995. The breakdown of energy use showed that electricity dominated total energy consumption and that, on average, about one-third of total energy was used for air conditioning. A number of factors that affect the energy use in hotel buildings, such as year of construction, hotel class, etc., are reviewed. The difficulties in assessing hotel building energy performance are also discussed, and methods for adequately evaluating energy performance for hotel buildings are proposed.
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| [32] |
Environmental protection programs and conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.07.003 URL Magsci 摘要
This study was designed to investigate the general nature of environmental protection, waste management, purchasing, energy use, and conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey. It explored the extent of environmental protection practices so the hotel industry could evaluate its position on environmental issues and so that other interested parties, including academics, can obtain fresh information for a distinctive part of the world. The data were collected by means of questionnaires and interviews. The study found that the policies and practices of Ankara hotels generally lack attributes relevant to environmental protection and conservation, and that hotel managers mostly lack the necessary environmental knowledge and interest to meet the basic objectives of social and environmental responsibility. It is thus necessary to develop an integrated system of policy and practice that involves not only the hotel management and staff, but also all parties concerned with environmental protection and sustainability, and to re-evaluate and reconsider national, local, and hotel policies and training activities.
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| [33] |
Reviewing the carbon footprint analysis of hotels: Life Cycle Energy Analysis (LCEA) as a holistic method for carbon impact appraisal of tourist accommodation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.07.002 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study discusses the potential for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to be utilized for the environmental assessment of tourism accommodation facilities, and their contribution to global carbon footprint. To demonstrate the viability of employing LCA in the hotel sector, its simplified derivative, Life Cycle Energy Analysis (LCEA), is applied to two tourism accommodation facilities in Poole, Dorset (UK) to quantify their CO 2 emissions. The results indicate that the reviewed hotels are less energy and carbon-intense than the tourism accommodation establishments reported in the literature. This may indirectly imply the continuous progress of hotel鈥檚 energy efficiency over time. The implications of the current energy use practices in the reviewed hotels are discussed and suggestions are made on how to further improve the energy performance and therefore cut the carbon footprint. Recommendations for hotel management and policy-making are developed to reduce the energy and carbon intensity of the hotel industry. A method for energy and carbon footprint analysis of outsourced laundries and breakfast services is also proposed.
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| [34] |
Technical approach for a sustainable tourism development: Case study in the Balearic Islands [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.05.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
In this study, the possibility of transforming the current status of tourism in the Balearic Islands (a region in Spain which has been under an enormous environmental pressure from conventional and massive tourism) to a sustainable tourism model is explored. Firstly, a general methodology for the conversion from standard to sustainable tourism is presented. The methodology consists of an initial audit, the selection of objectives and solutions proposed, the application of the selected solutions, an economical evaluation and a review of the obtained results. This methodology is then applied to the conversion of a real case study (“Sa Cova”) and a complete evaluation of the transformation to sustainable tourism is presented, showing an important reduction in the environmental impacts associated with tourism development (especially in areas such as energy consumption, water and waste management). The results presented here can serve as an example for the application of sustainable tourism plans to other similar regions in Spain or other traditional tourist destinations with similar problems.
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| [35] |
Global environmental consequences of tourism [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(02)00044-4 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In 2000, almost 700 million international tourist arrivals were counted worldwide. Even though a global activity of this scale can be assumed to have a substantial impact on the environment, its consequences have never been assessed and quantified. In this contribution, five major aspects of the leisure-related alteration of the environment are investigated: (1) the change of land cover and land use, (2) the use of energy and its associated impacts, (3) the exchange of biota over geographical barriers and the extinction of wild species, (4) the exchange and dispersion of diseases, and (5), a psychological consequence of travel, the changes in the perception and the understanding of the environment initiated by travel.
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| [36] |
Carbon labels in tourism: persuasive communication [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.067 URL 摘要
Ecolabels are widespread tools for policy and marketing in many industry sectors. Carbon labels focussing on carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions are one specialised category of ecolabel in use by tourism corporations. All ecolabels, including carbon labels, rely on persuasive communication: i.e., providing technical information to individuals in ways that induce them to change relevant behaviours. This requires that individuals understand that information, appreciate its significance, trust its reliability, and know how to act more sustainably. Here, these four criteria are applied to a set of tourism carbon label schemes, to assess whether the information provided by existing labels is comprehensive. Secondly, results are presented from a survey of environmentally aware tourists and their perspectives of two different types of carbon labels. Results indicate that tourism carbon label schemes suffer significant shortcomings both from the theoretical perspective of communications analysis and from the practical perspective of tourist understanding and action. Results indicate that even if tourists care about their climate change impacts, carbon labels are currently ineffective because of deficiencies in communications. Since such deficiencies can be overcome, there are opportunities for carbon labels to become more widely and successfully used.
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| [37] |
Are lodging customers ready to go green? An examination of attitudes, demographics, and eco-friendly intentions [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.07.008 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study attempted to answer the following research questions: (1) Do eco-friendly attitudes affect hotel customers’ environmentally friendly intentions to visit a green hotel, to spread word-of-mouth about a green hotel, and to pay more for a green hotel?; (2) If so, which facet of attitudes has the greatest impact?; (3) How do their expressed intentions differ across gender, age, education, and household income?; (4) How do such expressed intentions differ based on the existence of previous experience staying at a green hotel? A total of 422 cases were used to answer the research questions. Findings indicate that customers’ green attitudes are, in general, significantly associated with their expressed intentions to visit a green hotel, to spread word-of-mouth about a green hotel, and to pay more for it. Gender differences in such intentions were found, and the intentions were affected by their previous experiences with a green hotel. However, the eco-friendly intentions did not significantly differ across age, education, and household income.
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| [38] |
Socio-environmentally responsible hotel business: Do tourists to Penang Island, Malaysia care [J].https://doi.org/10.1300/J150v11n04_02 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Over the last decade, there has been a growing awareness within the global hotel industry of the relevance for environmental protection issues. Hotel corporations are seen to be changing their image by engaging in environmental initiatives. Some hotels even go further to include social responsibility issues in their agenda. Greater awareness on the potential economic and other less direct benefits of environmentally-friendly measures, coupled with the establishment of many “watch dog” and support organizations such as the International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA) and Green Hotel Association (GHA) has fueled the rise of “green” and/or responsible hotels in many established tourism destinations. Nevertheless, environmental and social measures are not the traditional core competency of a hotel. Thus, “green” and responsible measures may require additional investment and organizational change. From a business perspective, additional investments are futile if they do not result in higher market share. Simply put, a hotel's “green” and responsible measures are meaningless if met only with consumer apathy. Therefore, to justify the need for hotels to engage in responsibility measures, one of the questions that must be answered is-do the tourists care about hotels' social and environmental responsibility? Unfortunately, there is still little empirical knowledge of tourists' demand for responsible hotels, particularly within the context of a developing country such as Malaysia. This paper attempts to narrow the gap of information by providing a preliminary outlook on the “demand” of tourists for green and socially responsible hotels in Penang Island, Malaysia. Specifically, it looked at the main criteria tourists use when choosing a hotel, their preferences as well as their attitude, interest and opinion relating to a hotel's green and socially responsible measures.
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| [39] |
Environmental management in hotels [J]. |
| [40] |
Carbon footprints of hotels: Analysis of three archetypes in Hong Kong [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2013.09.005 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The need of curbing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially those arising from operations in existing buildings, has been well recognized. Incessant hotel operations, in particular, result in significant GHG emissions. Given the limited in-depth findings about the emissions from hotels of different classes, a study was conducted to probe into the carbon footprints of three typical hotels in Hong Kong. Through face-to-face meetings, detailed and reliable data under scopes 1–3 of the GHG Protocol were collected for analysis. The emission levels, when normalized by number of guestrooms, were different from those normalized by floor area. Use of purchased electricity was the dominant contributor to the emissions; emissions from use of portable liquefied petroleum gas and emergency operation of power generator were negligible. Reference levels of emissions due to staff daily travels were determined. The hotels’ emissions bore a strongly positive correlation with outdoor air temperature rather than occupancy rate. Regression models that can estimate the hotels’ emissions with changes in outdoor temperature were developed. Recommendations were made to tackle the problems with recording the necessary data and mitigate the emissions from the hotels. Wider adoption of the methodology of this study can establish carbon emission benchmarks, which are essential for monitoring and optimizing the carbon footprints of hotels.
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| [41] |
Carbon audit: A literature review and an empirical study on a hotel [J].https://doi.org/10.1108/02632771211235233 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Abstract Purpose ‐ Worldwide, many carbon audit guidelines have been developed, but comparative reviews of these guidelines and empirical findings of carbon emissions from hotels remain limited. The aim of the study reported here was to bridge these knowledge gaps. Design/methodology/approach ‐ A comparative review of the legislations and guidelines for carbon audits in Australia, the UK and Hong Kong was made. An empirical audit, which entailed a series of site visits and interviews for collecting the record data of a typical hotel in Hong Kong, was conducted to identify the sources and amounts of carbon emissions from the hotel. Findings ‐ Conducting carbon audits for buildings in Hong Kong is entirely voluntary. Reporting of certain scopes of carbon emissions is at the sole discretion of the reporting party. Purchased electricity for the hotel is the dominant source of carbon emissions. Research implications ‐ Audits in future may follow the reported audit process to identify carbon emissions from other hotels to enlarge the pool of empirical findings, which is a prerequisite to developing carbon emission benchmarks and carbon footprint analyses. Practical implications ‐ The suggestions made for overcoming the obstacles found from the audit are crucial for performing smoother and more complete audits in future. Originality/value ‐ The review findings and the practical problems identified are useful information for the stakeholders of carbon audits, including policy makers and facilities management practitioners.
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| [42] |
Understanding how consumers view green hotels: How a hotel's green image can influence behavioral intentions [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09669581003777747 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
As the public is increasingly concerned about environmental issues, green management is rapidly becoming a strategic tool that can enhance a hotel's competitive advantage. This study explores how to develop the image and branding of a green hotel using the concepts of cognitive, affective and overall images. The study, based on a survey of 416 hotel users, also investigates how a green hotel image can affect behavioural intentions (i.e. intention to revisit, intention to offer positive recommendations to others and willingness to pay a premium). The findings confirm that cognitive image components (namely value and quality attributes) can exert a positive influence on a green hotel's affective and overall images. The affective image is also found to positively affect a green hotel's overall image. A green hotel's overall image, in turn, can contribute to more favourable behavioural intentions. Quality attributes were found to be more powerful than value attributes. The importance of the concept of selfish altruism and obtaining a feeling of wellbeing from a purchase were shown to be very strong. A range of theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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| [43] |
The energy requirements and carbon dioxide emissions of tourism industry of western China: A case of Chengdu city [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.02.029 URL Magsci 摘要
Chengdu, the capital city of Sichuan province in western China is the gateway to Tibet. It is also the major habitat for giant panda and the principal city with the largest total tourism economic output in western China. The energy requirement of tourism industry is calculated by combining the 7 energy intensities with tourist consumption data from the Chengdu Domestic Tourist Expenditure Survey in which over 50,000 tourists were involved during 1999–2004. The carbon dioxide emissions of tourism industry are calculated based on the method introduced by IPCC report. Then, decomposition analysis was used to identify key factors causing the change of carbon emission. From 1999 to 2004, the energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission of tourism industry in Chengdu increased from 1.802×0210 7 02GJ to 2.302×0210 7 02GJ and from 1.702×0210 6 02tons to 2.102×0210 6 02tons, respectively. The indirect energy requirements and indirect CO 2 emissions dominate the total energy consumptions and total CO 2 emissions, with an overwhelming percentage of over 90%. The transportation is the major contributor for energy consumption and carbon emission of tourism industry. The relative importance of the transportation and shopping tends to increase while the food and entertainment tends to decrease. Among the five factors affecting energy consumption and carbon dioxide emission in tourism, energy intensity, expenditure size and the industry size are generally found to be principal drivers of emission growth, whereas energy share and consumption structure are not found to have a sizable influence on the growth of tourism industry emissions. In addition, the energy intensity has a negative effect on the increase of CO 2 levels while the expenditure size and the industry size have a positive effect on it.
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| [44] |
The relationship between managers' environmental perceptions, environmental management and firm performance in Spanish hotels: A whole framework [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.805 URL Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
The examination of the possible direct link between environmental protection and firm performance has generally produced mixed results. This paper contributes to the literature by considering the antecedents of hotel managers' environmental attitudes to check whether perceptions of the external and internal factors are behind the adoption of a proactive environmental management. The study also ...
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Sustainable tourism: A role for Kenya's hotel industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500308667953 URL 摘要
Research reported on in this paper is based on a survey (conducted between March and April 1998) designed to identify the perceptions of overseas visitors (n=237) to Kenya towards the impact of the hotel sector on the environment. Less than half of the respondents believed that Kenya's parks were managed on a sustainable basis while almost two-thirds felt that hotels exercised some impact on th...
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Energy planning in buildings under uncertainty in fuel costs: The case of a hotel unit in Greece [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(02)00119-X Magsci 摘要
Energy planning for individual large energy consumers becomes increasingly important due to several supply options competing and/or complementing each other and the high uncertainty associated with fuel prices. Hotel units are among the largest energy consumers in the building sector, where energy planning may greatly facilitate investment decisions for efficiently meeting energy demand. The present paper presents a linear programming model, including both continuous and integer variables, which represent energy flows and discrete energy technologies, respectively. Furthermore, the model comprises fuzzy parameters in order to handle adequately the uncertainties regarding energy costs. The obtained fuzzy linear programming model is then translated into the equivalent multiple objective linear programming model, which provides a set of efficient solutions, each one characterized by quantification of the risk associated with the uncertain energy costs. The proposed methodology is illustrated with a case study referring to a large hotel unit located nearby Athens.
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| [47] |
Environmental management practices among hotels in the greater Accra region [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2005.02.003 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
This study investigates the environmental management practices among different categories of hotels in the Greater Accra Region (GAR) of Ghana. Existing literature on hotels鈥 environmental management practices provided the theoretical underpinning for the study. Using the stratified sampling method, a sample of 52 hotel managers from the various categories of hotels in region completed questionnaires on the study. A test on the hypothesis using the chi-square method supported the fact that larger hotels (Three to five star) were at the forefront of adoption and practice of environmental management practices. Also, for the hotels with environmental policies, such policies were geared towards achieving safe, clean and healthy environments.
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| [48] |
Assessment of energy consumption and carbon footprint from the hotel sector within Lagos, Nigeria [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.02.046 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Nigeria has one of the lowest electricity consumption per capita in Africa and this is because the power grid capacity has not been able to meet the ever increasing demand for electricity. To remain in business, several business enterprises rely on captive generation of electricity; thus, the hospitality industry is not left out of this experience. Primarily, this study evaluates the energy consumption trend in the Nigerian hotel industry. The energy utilization is modeled in order to appraise its influence on the emission level of the diesel generators, which is the major source of electricity supply in Nigeria. The linear regression method is employed for the characterization of the energy utilization index. Also, correlation analysis is employed to investigate the interdependence of carbon footprint and normalized energy consumption. Results show a significant correlation between energy consumption per unit guest room and the carbon dioxide emission level. This work develops a carbon footprint protocol for the hotel industry in Nigeria by recommending that the annual energy consumption per unit guestroom should be kept at a value not more than 40.278聽MW聽h/guestroom while the annual energy consumption per unit equivalent guest room should be less than 62.861聽MW聽h/equivalent guestroom.
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| [49] |
Environmental performance in the hotel sector: The case of the Western Canary Islands [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.02.012 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The study begins with an extensive review of the literature on company environmental performance, to delimit the scope of this concept. On the basis of this review, the authors develop a measurement instrument capable of confirming the validity of that construct. The Rasch model is applied in the empirical analysis, to a sample of 187 hotel establishments in one of the most internationally important tourist destinations, the Western Canary Islands (Spain). The results confirm the content validity of the environmental performance construct. Other important results identify the frequency of achievement of excellence in the distinct aspects of environmental performance for hotel firms and suggest the need to expand the delimitation of the construct.
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The greenhouse gas intensity of the tourism sector: The case of Switzerland [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2009.12.002 URL Magsci 摘要
Greenhouse gas intensity is a ratio comparing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of an activity or economic sector to the economic value it generates. In recent years, many countries have calculated the GHG intensity of their economic sectors as a basis for policy making. The GHG intensity of tourism, however, has not been determined since tourism is not measured as an economic sector in the national accounts. While for tourism-reliant countries it would be useful to know this quantity, a number of difficulties exist in its determination. In this study, we determine the GHG intensity of tourism's value added in Switzerland by means of a detailed bottom-up approach with the main methodological focus on how to achieve consistent system boundaries. For comparison, we calculate the tourism sector's GHG intensity for selected European countries using a simpler top-down approach. Our results show that the Swiss tourism sector is more than four times more GHG intensive than the Swiss economy on average. Of all tourism's sub-sectors, air transport stands out as the sector with by far largest emissions (80%) and highest GHG intensity. The results for other countries make similar, if not as pronounced, patterns apparent. We discuss the results and possible mitigation options against the background of the goal to prevent dangerous climate change.
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| [51] |
How 'green' are North American hotels? An exploration of low-cost adoption practices [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.09.008 URL Magsci 摘要
This study analyzed the so-called “green,” or environmentally friendly, practices of American hotels. As such, it examined how green hotels in the United States are regarding no-cost or low-cost practices. Respondents included 166 hotels, which were identified through a random sample of hotels from the American Hotel & Lodging Association and included chain and independent properties as well as properties of various sizes (based on the number of rooms). The study findings show that chain hotels were at the time of the study stronger adopters of green practices than independent hotels were, likely due to leveraging economies of scale through uniform corporate practices. In addition, hotels in the Midwest were found to be the most environmentally friendly in terms of their use of no-cost or low-cost green practices. Additional results indicated that size (classified by number of rooms) had little effect on the extent to which hotels were trying to manage energy consumption.
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Energy use, CO2 emissions and waste throughout the life cycle of a sample of hotels in the Balearic Islands [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.10.024 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Tourism is the most developed economic sector in the Balearic Islands. The great rise in construction activities within the last 50 years, the increase in energy use, in CO 2 emissions and in waste production due to tourism, as well as an electrical energy production system mainly based on coal and fossil fuels is not an environmentally sustainable scenario. The aim of this study is to identify the processes that have had the greatest impact on the life cycle of a tourist building. In order to do this, the energy uses, CO 2 emissions and waste materials generated have been estimated, assuming a life cycle of 50 years, within a sample of hotels from the Balearic Islands. The results show that the operating phase, which represents between 70% and 80% of the total energy use, is the one with the greatest impact; that the energy use due to the manufacture of materials represents a fifth of the total and that electric consumption is the main cause of CO 2 emissions because of the regional energy system.
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| [53] |
Energy conservation and retrofitting potential in Hellenic hotels [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(95)00963-9 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Abstract Energy consumption data from 158 Hellenic hotels and estimated energy savings that result from the use of practical retrofitting techniques, materials and new energy efficient systems are presented. The data were collected during an extensive energy audit of buildings that was carried out in Hellas, within the frame of a National Energy Programme sponsored by the CEC VALOREN Programme, for energy conservation in buildings. During this short monitoring campaign and on-site visits of a trained panel of engineers to each building, all information related to the building's construction, heating, cooling and lighting systems, and all other mechanical and electrical systems, was collected. The main results and energy characteristics of cooling, heating and lighting on energy consumption and performance are discussed. The annual average total energy consumption in hotels is 273 kWh/m2, one of the highest among all categories of buildings. Several scenarios for possible interventions to the building's outer envelope, heating, cooling and lighting systems are proposed and evaluated, in order to assess the effectiveness of various energy conservation techniques. Based on the results from several simulations, it is concluded that it is possible to reach an overall 20% energy conservation.
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| [54] |
The impact of applying recent façade technology on daylighting performance in buildings in eastern Mediterranean [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(01)00095-6 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Energy shortage has surfaced in Lebanon during and after the civil war. There is a need to rationalise the use of energy in the building sector. Building fa04ade design in Lebanon is not taking fully advantage of the ja:math daylighting availability. Architects are not conscious of the impacts of the evolution of fa04ade design on energy consumption. The lack of regulation led to over estimation of the impacts on cooling load and much less attention is given to impacts on daylighting. This paper aims to examine the changes of fa04ade configuration throughout the last century and their impact on daylighting levels in Beirut offices. The historical development of fa04ade design is reviewed. Categories of buildings are identified. Examples of each category are examined for their daylighting efficiencies.
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SEA (Swedish Energy Administration). 2003. Energy statistics for non-residential premises in 2002 [EB/OL]. |
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Environmental awareness, action and performance in the Guernsey hospitality sector [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(96)00095-7 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Some key reasons for inaction are highlighted and the implications for the ways in which central and local governments, public sector bodies and the business sector itself can encourage sustainable development (SD) initiatives by individual enterprises are offered from a largely economic standpoint.
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| [57] |
Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from UK hotels in 2030 [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.12.001 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The effects were studied of interventions expected to be available in 2030 including fabric improvements, HVAC changes, lighting and appliance improvements and renewable energy generation. The main finding was that it is technically feasible to reduce emissions by 50% without compromising guest comfort. Ranking of the interventions was problematical for several reasons including interdependence and the impacts on boiler sizing of large reductions in the heating load.
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Developing energy conservation and carbon reduction indicators for the hotel industry in Taiwan [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.06.006 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study develops and weights energy conservation and carbon reduction (ECCR) indicators for the hotel industry in Taiwan to create an instrument to help address climate change. Eighteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with senior hotel managers, environmental specialists, and government officials to identify the preliminary ECCR framework. An expert panel then was invited to review the structure of ECCR criteria and the compiled criteria in a structure for item modification. An analytic network process questionnaire survey was employed to determine the relative weights of the criteria. The data analysis reveals seven categories in the ECCR framework: communication and participation, top management commitment, energy, water, waste, building, and purchasing. A total of 32 indicators were identified and prioritized in terms of their relative importance to ECCR contributions. The results of this study suggest that the success of ECCR implementation depends primarily on management support and staff engagement. Hotel operators can improve their environmental management by initiating ECCR practices based on the proposed ECCR indicators.
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Resource use and waste management in Vietnam hotel industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.12.014 URL 摘要
The hotel industry of Vietnam is expanding rapidly with increasing international arrivals and domestic tourists. At the same time, mounting costs of resources and impacts of waste could affect the income, environmental performance and public image of the hotel sector. The hotel industry鈥檚 resource management (energy and water) would contribute to the long-term sustainability of the tourism sector. This paper reports the results of a study conducted to assess the resource use and management in the hotel industry in Vietnam. This was obtained by carrying out a survey in 50 hotels on energy and water consumption, and waste generation. The energy and water use, as well as the waste generated in the various hotel categories have been estimated and compared with those in other countries. The current practices in the hotels to address these issues are highlighted, and benchmarks for efficient use of resources in Vietnamese hotels are presented.
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Carbon dioxide emissions generated by energy consumption of hotels and homestay facilities in Taiwan [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.08.017 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In the field of the tourism, hotels and homestay facilities account for considerable amounts of energy consumption and COemissions. This study presents an investigation conducted on the COemissions from four types of hotel in Taiwan. According to the results, the average COemissions of international tourist hotels, standard tourist hotels, general hotels, and homestay facilities are 28.9, 19.2, 12.5, and 6.3 kg-CO/person-night, respectively. Hotels with higher service levels produce higher average COemissions per person-night. Analytical results indicate that increasing stays at hotels with low COemissions (such as homestay facilities and general hotels), accommodating more guests together per room, and enhancing energy usage efficiency, can effectively reduce hotel COemissions without reducing the total number of guests. The results of this study may be applied to COreduction programmes for tourists, hotel enterprises, and contribute toward the formulation of government policy in Taiwan.
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Agenda 21: A guide to the United Nations conference on environment and development[R]. Geneva: |
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Climate change and tourism: Responding to global challenges[R]. Madrid, Spain: UNWTO, UNEP & |
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Energy consumption characteristics of hotel's marketing preference for guests from regions perspective [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.01.044 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This research analyzed how hotel's marketing preference for certain guests from different world regions would influence their energy consumption and the revenue generated by them who travel and lodge in Taiwan. Energy consumption data, building information, and hotel operation data were collected from 49 Taiwanese international tourist hotels and 24 standard tourist hotels, which are equivalent to five and four-star hotels. The statistical results show that the energy use among hotels under surveyed ranges between 83 and 408 MJ/guest per night, and could create averaged revenue of US$149 for each guest accommodated. To identify a hotel's primary marketing preference for accommodating certain region of guests, factors of certain regional guest ratios were employed. Multiple-regression model was established to characterize the hotel energy consumption via regional guest ratios. It indicates that the energy consumption varied with hotels' regional guest ratios. It also reveals that hotels with their marketing preference for accommodating guests from Europe and North America would have higher energy use characteristic followed by those aiming for guests from Australia, Asia (excluding Japan and China), Japan, domestic Taiwan, and China in descending order. Multiple regression models were used to investigate relationships between the yearly energy consumption and total revenue of hotels. The models established are statistically reliable and could be beneficial for hotel's marketing, room price fixing, or operating references. The study also reveals that guests from the well developed countries would generally create more revenue. However, additional expenses on energy will also incur for hotels whose marketing preference towards them, which may possibly exceed their profit. In profit-energy costs perspective, it is recommended that hotel targeted for guests from Japan might be the most beneficial in Taiwan.
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| [64] |
Exploring methods and practicalities of conducting sector-wide energy consumption accounting in the tourist accommodation industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.08.007 URL 摘要
Sector-wide environmental accounting is an important mechanism for determining areas of poor environmental performance that need to be targeted to reduce resource consumption and the production of waste output. However, to date, little attention has been paid to the practicalities of conducting sector-wide environmental accounting in fragmented, service-oriented industry sectors that comprise a diversity of small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). This study explores such practicalities through a series of independent energy audits conducted in the Australian tourist accommodation industry. Three distinct energy consumption accounting techniques are reviewed in the light of findings made from 35 energy audits, and more than 200 telephone and face-to-face interviews held with various accommodation sector representatives. The three sector-wide energy consumption accounting methods reviewed are: the Floor Area Method, the Multiple Regression Method and the Mandatory Reporting Method. In light of different business structures, different in-house environmental accounting practices, and other major factors affecting resource consumption, mandatory reporting is found to be the most efficient and effective method. To facilitate its use, it is recommended that: a) governments consider requiring commercial resource consumption or waste production figures to be made generally accessible, b) businesses are required to collect energy consumption data over several years to provide the basis for calculating relatively accurate models that capture the factors driving energy consumption, and c) standardised accounting spreadsheets are developed to facilitate data collection for different types of enterprises.
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Eco-resorts vs. mainstream accommodation providers: An investigation of the viability of benchmarking environmental performance [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.017 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Per capita energy and water consumption figures of five fully accredited eco-resorts were benchmarked against 11 hotels, 13 condominium complexes and six caravan parks located in three major tourist destinations in Queensland, Australia. Somewhat surprisingly, it appears some eco-resorts fail to achieve above average standards with respect to these dimensions of environmental performance. The most efficient resource consumption outcomes were evident where resource use efficiency was factored in at the early stage of resort planning. A noteworthy observation was that none of the businesses investigated could provide data for waste and wastewater production. The problems of developing a benchmarking process for the consumption of water and electricity by accommodation providers are discussed. A major obstacle was found in the fact that consumption rates are influenced by a multitude of site specific characteristics such as age of building, building size and layout, nature of operation, extent of communal facilities, climate, etc. With such a large number of factors affecting energy and water consumption, one is drawn into the problem of how many benchmarking groups need to be developed in order for benchmarking accommodation complex resource consumption to be a meaningful exercise. This also renders problematic the development of environmental compliance accreditation criteria. The study's findings renew concerns about the focus of some industry administered green accreditation schemes and the emphasis placed on their role as a key instrument for promoting more sustainable outcomes for the tourist accommodation sector.
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Leading the challenge on climate change[R]. London: World Travel and
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Benchmarking energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Singapore's hotel industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.04.006 URL Magsci [本文引用: 6] 摘要
Hotel buildings are reported in many countries as one of the most energy intensive building sectors. Besides the pressure posed on energy supply, they also have adverse impact on the environment through greenhouse gas emissions, wastewater discharge and so on. This study was intended to shed some light on the energy and environment related issues in hotel industry. Energy consumption data and relevant information collected from hotels were subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. A regression-based benchmarking model was established, which takes into account, the difference in functional and operational features when hotels are compared with regard to their energy performance. In addition, CO 2 emissions from the surveyed hotels were estimated based on a standard procedure for corporate GHG emission accounting. It was found that a hotel鈥檚 carbon intensity ranking is rather sensitive to the normalizing denominator chosen. Therefore, carbon intensity estimated for the hotels must not be interpreted arbitrarily, and industry specific normalizing denominator should be sought in future studies.
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ANP model for sustainable Building Energy Efficiency Retrofit (BEER) using Energy Performance Contracting (EPC) for hotel buildings in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2011.12.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Building Energy Efficiency Retrofit (BEER) is an attractive way toward low carbon buildings through improving energy efficiency of high-energy-consumption existing buildings. Sustainable development strategy has been reaching many spheres of human activities. Sustainable BEER aims to integrate the sustainable development concept into existing buildings and retrofit projects. To ensure BEER projects that can fulfill the sustainable development strategy, a project delivery model is one major consideration and Energy Performance Contracting (EPC) is one possible market mechanism to deliver energy efficiency projects. This paper aims to use Analytic Network Process (ANP) to develop a model for sustainable BEER under the EPC mechanism. Key performance indicators (KPIs) for sustainable BEER in hotel buildings and critical success factors (CSFs) for EPC have been identified based on a set of interview and questionnaire survey previously conducted by the authors. In this study, the relationships among sustainable dimensions, KPIs, and CSFs are identified through a focus group discussion. Finally, an ANP model is built based on the data collected in the group discussion using the SuperDecision software.
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| [69] |
The analysis on carbon footprint of catering products in high-star hotels during operation: Based on investigation conducted in parts of high-star hotels in Ji'nan [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.03.157 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
08 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of RIUDS
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Green approaches of Malaysian green hotels and resorts [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.371 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
ABSTRACT Currently tourism is moving towards sustainable tourism because this industry poses negative impacts on the environment. Tourism industry consumes and produces many resources such as water, energy and waste. The purpose of this research is to determine the rate of participation in green approaches of Malaysia green hospitality industry. The methodology used was in depth interviews and observations. This research finding shows that the operators adopt greener approaches in three common areas such as energy, waste and water. Less participation in indoors air quality, sustainable management of the site, renewable energy and rainwater harvesting system. peer-review under responsibility of the Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies (cE-Bs), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
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