地理科学进展  2019 , 38 (4): 533-545 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.006

研究综述

冰川旅游研究进展与启示

刘丽敏123, 钟林生1*, 虞虎1

1. 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,北京 100101
2. 中国科学院大学,北京 100049
3. 中华女子学院管理学院,北京 100101

Progress of glacier tourism research and implications

LIU Limin123, ZHONG Linsheng1*, YU Hu1

1. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
3. School of Management of China Women's University, Beijing 100101, China

收稿日期: 2018-08-3

修回日期:  2019-01-6

网络出版日期:  2019-04-28

版权声明:  2019 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有

基金资助:  教育部人文社会科学研究青年基金项目(17YJC630086)国家自然科学基金项目(41671527)中华女子学院重大科研项目(ZKY208020202)

作者简介:

第一作者简介:刘丽敏,女(1985— ),湖南岳阳人,博士生,主要从事旅游地理、旅游规划研究。E-mail: liulimineve@163.com

*通信作者简介:钟林生,男(1971— ),江西于都人,研究员,博士,主要从事旅游地理、生态旅游研究。E-mail: zhongls@igsnrr.ac.cn

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摘要

冰川旅游是现代旅游活动的重要组成部分,对冰川区域的自然生态环境产生着重要影响。冰川分布偏远、进入性差、旅游活动专业性强等因素制约着该领域的深入研究,尚未形成系统性的理论研究体系。论文梳理了国内外冰川旅游相关研究成果,从冰川旅游的概念与内涵、冰川旅游资源开发与管理、冰川旅游发展效应、气候变化对冰川旅游的影响及应对等方面进行了总结,评述了国内外冰川旅游在研究时间、研究内容、研究方法上的差异,提出了冰川旅游研究的难点和突破口。在此基础上,提出冰川旅游研究应基于资源学和地理学科特点,以旅游地域的人地关系演化为着眼点,从冰川旅游的资源基础、景观价值评价与适宜性开发、冰川旅游发展模式、目的地管理与社区建设等方面构建研究框架,指导中国冰川旅游的可持续发展。

关键词: 冰川旅游 ; 研究特点 ; 评述 ; 中国

Abstract

Glacier tourism is an important part of modern tourism and has a great impact on the ecological environment. Glaciers are distributed in remote areas. Poor accessibility and high requirement for professional knowledge in tourism activities have restricted in-depth research of glacier tourism. Thus, there is a lack of systematic theoretical research in this field. This article reviews the related literature of glacier tourism in China and internationally in regard to the concept and connotation, resource development and management, social and economic effects, and the impact of and response to climate change, examines the differences between China and other countries in research time, contents, and methods, and points out the difficulties and areas for potential breakthroughs. It is proposed that the study of glacial tourism should be based on the perspectives of resources science and geography, and with a focus on the evolution of human-environment relationship in the destination regions. In the future, a research framework including resource endowments and value assessment, selection of suitable development areas, development patterns, destination management, and community building should be constructed to guide the sustainable development of glacial tourism in China.

Keywords: glacier tourism ; research characteristics ; review ; China

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刘丽敏, 钟林生, 虞虎. 冰川旅游研究进展与启示[J]. 地理科学进展, 2019, 38(4): 533-545 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.006

LIU Limin, ZHONG Linsheng, YU Hu. Progress of glacier tourism research and implications[J]. Progress in Geography, 2019, 38(4): 533-545 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.006

冰川是大自然最为宝贵的淡水资源(张九天等, 2012),也是重要的旅游景观。依托冰川资源景观开展旅游设施建设和旅游活动,已成为人类利用冰川的重要途径之一。冰川地貌复杂、原生自然环境恶劣,具有稀缺性、景观美感以及宗教文化特征,赋予了冰川旅游高度的吸引力。冰川旅游能够带动生态资本的增值,为地区绿色经济发展提供可持续动力。然而,冰川旅游活动高度集中,可建设土地空间有限,不合理的利用常会带来集中式的生态环境破坏,加之全球气候变化的复杂影响,促进冰川旅游的可持续发展成为关键的科学议题。

冰川旅游伴随着18世纪的朝圣、探险和登山活动产生,在北美、北欧等地区已经成为高端旅游的核心吸引物。随着中国游客消费能力和消费层次的提高,一些个性化、体验性、挑战性的冰川旅游项目成为热门旅游产品,包括冰川观光、冰川休闲度假、户外探险、科学考察、科普教育等,直接推动了中国冰川旅游近年来的迅速发展。冰川作为一种特殊的自然景观和旅游吸引物,具有较大的旅游开发价值,国际上以冰川为主体的著名旅游目的地/景区已有100多个(Wang et al, 2012),利用模式包括国家公园、自然保护区、风景名胜区等多种类型。冰川旅游的高品质、高价值得到全球认可,其中部分冰川旅游地被列入世界遗产目录,如瑞士的少女峰-阿莱奇冰川-比奇峰综合山区(Swiss Alps Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschorn)、新西兰的蒂瓦希普纳穆(Te Wahipounamu)自然保护区、阿根廷的洛斯冰川国家公园(Los Glaciares)、加拿大的班芙国家公园(Banff National Park)、美国与加拿大的沃特顿冰川国际和平公园(Waterton Glacier International Peace Park)、挪威的挪威峡湾(West Norwegian Fjords)等,为探索自然生态与地方社区的和谐发展提供了模式借鉴。

中国拥有48571条冰川,冰川面积达5.18万km2(刘时银等,2015),是世界上中低纬度带冰川数量最多和规模最大的国家,喜马拉雅山、横断山、昆仑山、祁连山等诸多山脉发育了规模庞大、景观一流的冰川资源,具有发展冰川旅游的天然优势,也为探索该区域可持续发展提供了重要的资源依托。20世纪80年代,甘肃省“七一冰川”正式对外开放,成为中国首个以冰川为主要吸引物的旅游景点。随后,海螺沟冰川、贡巴冰川、达古冰川、明永冰川、米堆冰川等一批资源优质、风景优美的冰川相继得到开发。围绕冰川资源进行旅游运营的景区逐渐增多,如海螺沟冰川森林公园、玉龙雪山冰川国家地质公园、达古冰山风景名胜区、米堆冰川景区等均成为知名旅游景点。然而,受冰川所处的自然地理条件和运营条件等诸多因素的影响,这些已利用的冰川旅游景区大部分运营状况不佳,优势冰川旅游产品发展不足、管理体制政策滞后等问题突出。与国外相比,中国的冰川旅游在开发数量、利用深度等方面均较为落后,与先天的资源禀赋形成强烈反差(王世金等, 2011),冰川旅游也未对区域产生应有的经济增长效应。究其原因,主要是国内精通冰川旅游资源开发和活动项目设计的人才不多,开发管理者们缺乏对冰川旅游的综合认知,表现为开展冰川研究的地质地貌学家关注的重点不在冰川旅游,而开展旅游资源开发研究的学者又缺少冰川地理学科的知识储备,造成冰川旅游开发简单套用一般自然资源开发模式,冰川资源的优势没有得到发挥,弊端没有规避,冰川旅游区的组织方式和经营模式缺乏对冰川自然要素的考量。

因此,本文系统梳理国内外冰川旅游研究成果,总结冰川旅游研究视角、关键内容等,以期为中国冰川旅游研究和冰川资源的合理利用提供科学借鉴。

1 文献样本获取与数量特征

本文主要收集国内外冰川旅游研究文献,进行分析凝练,提取核心信息进行阐述和评述,最后提出系统性的冰川旅游研究框架。首先,获取文献数据方面,对国内外知名文献数据库进行关键词检索,英文文献的搜索以Web of Science引文数据库、Taylor and Francis Online、Elsevie ScienceDirect、Wiley Online Library、SpringerLink为对象,以所有年份为时间跨度,输入英文主题词或标题“glacier tourism”“glacier tourist”“glacier tour”“glacier recreation”进行查询,共检索到相关英文文献132篇。中文文献搜集以中国知网数据库为基础,首先在篇名或关键词输入“冰川旅游”进行查询,共检索到文献51篇。其次,剔除重复和非研究性文献,阅读搜索的中英文文献,剔除重复英文文献16篇以及中文报刊文章13篇,共得到英文文献116篇、中文文献38篇。最后,根据上述删减以及内容的紧密度,最终选取与冰川旅游紧密相关的研究文献67篇作为本文的分析样本,包括期刊论文55篇、会议论文6篇、研究报告4篇和学位毕业论文2篇。

从文献数量初步分析可以看出,相对于冰川旅游的发展,冰川旅游研究显著滞后。20世纪80年代中后期,冰川旅游开始进入研究者的视野;21世纪之后,冰川旅游研究的成果有所增多,但增长缓慢,最高年份2012年也仅有8篇(图1)。

图1   冰川旅游文献的年度分布

Fig.1   Annual number of glacier tourism studies

开展冰川旅游研究的学科主要是旅游学、地理学和环境学科,成果发表的期刊涉及40余种,涵盖旅游、地理、生态环境、冰川研究等期刊,其中地理研究类期刊和旅游研究类期刊发表较多(表1),包括Mountain Research & Development (4篇)、Tourism Geographies (2篇)、Environmental Management (2篇)、Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement (2篇)、Journal of Sustainable Tourism (2篇),其他期刊刊载文章数量全部为1篇。

表1   冰川旅游研究成果在期刊中的分布

Tab.1   Distribution of glacier tourism studies in journals of different fields

期刊类型刊载文章量/篇热点研究主题
地理研究类17冰川旅游资源利用与保护、冰川旅游发展潜力评价、气候变化与冰川旅游关系、冰川旅游开发模式、冰川旅游安全等
旅游研究类11冰川旅游运营、游客感知、社区发展、气候变化对冰川旅游影响等
生态/环境研究类6冰川旅游资源利用、冰川旅游生态环境保护、冰川旅游可持续发展等
冰川研究类3气候变化对冰川旅游影响、冰川旅游安全等
气候变化研究类2气候变化对冰川旅游影响、冰川旅游气候变化响应等
其他16冰川旅游的社会效应、游客动机和行为、居民态度和感知等

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2 冰川旅游研究内容

通过对上述文献进行分析发现,冰川旅游的研究主题可以归纳为冰川旅游概念与内涵、冰川旅游资源开发与管理、冰川旅游发展的效应、气候变化对冰川旅游的影响及应对4个方面。

2.1 冰川旅游的概念与内涵

冰川旅游是基于冰川资源发展形成的,但并不是所有的冰川都能视作旅游资源,只有那些交通方便、可达性强的冰川才能开发成为冰川旅游产品(郑本兴, 1996)。冰川旅游通常被认为是在冰川区域集合了地质旅游、山地旅游、户外旅游、探险旅游等多种活动特征的一种形式(Pralong et al, 2005)。对冰川旅游及资源进行概念界定的研究较少,在研究者给出的这些定义中,或者强调冰川本身,或者强调开展的活动和游客体验,往往因视角不同而赋予不同的含义。Liu等(2006)将冰川旅游描述为“冰川地区的旅游活动,如观光、探险、科学考察、科学教育等”,与传统旅游形式相比,“所用的资源(如冰川、冰盖)稀缺脆弱,活动集中度高,内涵科学,并具有娱乐、审美和科学多功能价值”。王世金、焦世泰等(2012)将冰川旅游界定为“以冰川或冰川遗迹资源作为主要吸引物而开展的旅游活动或项目,是集冰川观光、体验、探险、科考、科普、教育与康体健身于一体的一项回归自然、挑战自我、健身强体、休闲娱乐、科普教育和陶冶性情的高山专项旅游形式或项目”。Furunes等(2012)则从冰川旅游内涵的风险出发,认为“冰川旅游是自然旅游与冒险旅游的结合体,是游客在冰河地区行走和攀登所获得的独特体验,以及在陌生和潜在的危险环境中寻求不同程度挑战的过程”。结合冰川旅游概念的研究可以发现,研究者们在以下几方面达成了共识:① 冰川旅游是自然旅游的一个子域;② 冰川旅游以冰川地的地理环境要素作为主要吸引物,主要在冰川区域开展旅游活动;③ 冰川旅游是一种带有冒险和挑战自我精神的旅游形式。但对于冰川旅游的范畴这一问题仍不明确,有学者在研究冰川旅游时,仅将游客在冰川上开展的活动归为冰川旅游(Furunes et al, 2012),而有的学者却认为冰川相邻地区开展所有旅游活动都应纳入冰川旅游的研究范畴,如冰川前缘地带的冰碛湖、冰洞、冰瀑布都是吸引游客的重要景观(Purdie, 2013)。实际上,在研究冰川旅游时,应对冰川旅游资源、冰川旅游活动、冰川旅游目的地这几个概念范畴进行辨析。冰川旅游资源是指能够用于开发旅游活动的冰川自然体的统称,包括冰碛湖、冰洞、冰瀑布等资源单体,旅游单体的集中区域形成了旅游资源开发区域。交通条件、可达性等属于冰川旅游资源的外在开发环境,与旅游资源不属于同一范畴。冰川旅游活动,是指依托冰川旅游资源开发的相关旅游活动,如冰川观光、冰川滑雪、冰川徒步等。冰川旅游目的地应从旅游地系统的角度出发进行界定,包括旅游吸引物集合体、服务社区、中转通道和区内通道等部分,是在一定的冰川自然体及其周边延伸区域空间内,由冰川旅游资源、旅游基础设施和服务设施、依附的服务社区以及交通通道等有机组成的为旅游者提供停留和活动的旅游区域(图2)。

图2   冰川旅游目的地系统

Fig.2   Glacier tourism destination system

2.2 冰川旅游资源开发与管理

2.2.1 冰川旅游资源开发模式

冰川旅游是一种具有较大发展潜力的旅游形式(Aall et al, 2005)。自19世纪瑞士的冰川旅游商业运营成功开展以来,世界上不同地域、不同类型的冰川分别受到研究者关注,冰川旅游的空间开发结构、冰川旅游资源的发展模式、冰川旅游产品的开发等成为研究的重点(刘丹萍等, 2002; 伍光和等, 2007; 王世金等, 2011; 宋巍等, 2017)。在已有成果中,多数是以旅游地的规划任务为目标开展的有关开发布局方面的研究,并将旅游地构成的要素设计挪用到冰川区域,而对于面向冰川资源的开发模式探讨还较少(姜辽等, 2008;王世金, 秦大河等, 2012)。冰川观光路径的开拓、游客中心的建立、导游的培训、解说系统的建立等被认为是影响冰川旅游开展的重要因素(Iwata et al, 2007; 李泽萱, 2015)。作为壮丽景观、地貌多样性以及全球气候变化环境响应的典型代表,许多冰川地因其教育价值正在逐渐成为教育旅行的对象(姜辽等, 2008; Feuillet et al, 2011; Bollati et al, 2013)。冰川旅游能够加强游客对冰川形成及地貌知识的理解,意识到全球气候的变化并感受到这种变化带来的后果。这种教育旅游产品的开发已经在世界著名的冰川旅游地付诸实施(Welling et al, 2015)。

2.2.2 冰川旅游者行为偏好

有关冰川旅游者行为方面的文献侧重分析其动机、偏好、体验、满意度等。研究表明,欣赏冰川、亲近自然、挑战探索等是游客前往冰川旅游地的主要原因,但不同群体在旅游动机强弱、旅游活动选择、旅游组织形式以及满意度方面存在差异。Stewart等对访问新西兰西部泰普提尼国家公园(Westland Tai Poutini National Park)和冰岛瓦特纳冰原国家公园(Vatnajkull National Park)的游客进行了问卷调查,数据显示,前者的旅游动机排名顺序为“欣赏冰川(可能消失的景观)”“接近自然”“体验探索的感觉”;而后者的首要动机却是亲近自然,其次才是欣赏冰川(Stewart et al, 2016; Stewart et al, 2017)。Wilson(2012)对新西兰西海岸冰川旅游目的地的研究显示,在冰川旅游活动方面,国际游客喜欢参与商业性的冰川徒步活动,而新西兰游客更喜欢参加直升机空中飞行(glacier flight)活动。Corbett(2001)研究发现,在冰川旅游组织形式上,新西兰、澳大利亚、美国和德国的游客喜欢自己游览,而英国、丹麦、以色列、瑞典、韩国、日本的游客更喜欢聘请导游,聘请导游的游客和自助游的游客在冰川旅游地的选择、冰川景观和活动的评价等方面存在显著差异。对于游客在冰川旅游地参与的活动,Wislon等(2014a)的调查结果显示,冰川山谷徒步是游客体验最多的项目,其次是冰川徒步,除了这些跟冰川直接相关的活动外,大多数游客还会体验冰川旅游地的其他项目,如观湖、温泉等。在冰川活动体验方面,Stewart等(2016)的研究显示,50%、45%和35%的游客分别表示在冰川规模、纯洁度和壮观性上没有达到自身期望,但总体满意度较高。除自身期望外,冰川旅游活动产品的价格、拥挤状况、噪音大小等也是影响游客满意度的重要因素(Wilson et al, 2014a)。

冰川不仅以景观之美而闻名,而且具有科学、文化、美学教育、休闲、旅游、生态等多重价值。Capps(2017)对美国的国家公园进行了研究,结果显示,冰川对几乎一半的国家公园景观作出了实质性的贡献,并塑造了国家公园的形象和价值。一些研究试图通过定性研究的方法,探讨游客对冰川景观的评价(Frömming, 2009; Beza, 2010; Olafsdottir, 2013)。如Jóhannesdóttir (2010)研究发现,游客对冰川景观的评价是建立在感知和体验冰川的颜色、形状、纹理和声音等物理特性的基础之上的,冰川景观营造了一种充满神奇和敬畏的氛围。Lund(2013)的观察也获得类似的结果,冰川景观显示了大自然的活力和生命力,游客对冰岛斯奈菲尔国家公园(Snæfellsjökull National Park)景观的审美评价,包括了荒野的概念以及诸如壮丽、迷人等之类的情感。

2.2.3 冰川旅游安全管理

冰川旅游是一种带有潜在危险成分的活动,包括冰川本身可能引发的自然灾害以及旅游活动过程中的一些安全事故,具体表现为冰崩、冰川裂缝、落石、极端天气等(Furunes et al, 2012; Purdie et al, 2015)。Furunes等(2012)分析了与冰川旅游相关的危险,主要包括3个方面:第一类危险是冰雪的崩落。如果不对游客予以告诫,崩落的冰雪就会对附近的游览者造成严重威胁,这是游客在冰川地丧命的主要原因。另外,冰川前缘突然变化还可能会阻塞原有河道,引发洪水。第二类危险是由冰川上的裂缝引起的,这些裂缝有时可能覆盖着薄薄的冰雪,难以辨认。游客一旦被困在裂缝中后会因为低温而丧失行走能力,将逐渐失去意识。第三类危险是来自冰川表面行走的风险。对大多数游客来说,在冰川表面行走是件困难的事,穿越冰川面临着滑落的可能性。Purdie等(2015)利用落石模型评估了福克斯冰川区(Fox Glacier)的落石危险,结果显示在2008、2012年的地形下,岩石的最大滚落距离分别为177、229 m,由此可得出,冰川区地形是影响落石危险程度的重要因素。此外,冰碛湖已成为一个重要的吸引物,很多游客前往冰碛湖欣赏冰川崩解的现象。然而,新的冰碛湖的形成本身就一个潜在的威胁,因为冰碛湖的不稳定会造成洪水暴发(Ritter et al, 2012),引发瀑布式的连锁反应,涉及下游湖泊,对游客生命安全造成极大威胁(Haeberli et al, 2001; Mahagaonkar et al, 2017)。同时,冰山和冰块的崩解在形成冰川湖泊或毗邻潮汐冰川(tidewater glaciers)的水域过程中会导致巨大的波浪,造成游船不稳定,威胁湖面和湖岸观光游客的安全(Smiraglia et al, 2008; Purdie, 2013)。为了减少危险事故的发生,旅游目的地应该建立完善的旅游风险评估体系(王世金, 焦世泰等, 2012),旅游活动由专业向导带领,并给游客配备专业设备(Furunes et al, 2012)等。

2.3 冰川旅游发展效应研究

2.3.1 冰川旅游发展的经济社会效应

冰川旅游对目的地的影响可从经济刺激和社会效应2个方面进行总结。首先,冰川旅游活动在为游客提供户外体验的同时,也为冰川区域邻近社区带来经济增长和社区就业机会(Nepal, 2011; Espine et al, 2014)。Purdie(2013)的研究显示,冰川旅游已经成为新西兰的重要产业,新西兰每年接待的游客中,约28%都集中在西海岸的冰川地区,冰川旅游的直接经济贡献每年超过8100万美元。Wilson等(2014b)的调查表明,新西兰福克斯(Fox Glacier Village)和弗朗兹·约瑟夫(Franz Josef Village)两个村庄的生存完全依赖冰川旅游,在弗朗兹·约瑟夫小村,仅从事住宿和餐饮工作的村民数量比例就达到60.8%。朱智等(2016)对四川海螺沟冰川森林公园的研究也表明,冰川旅游产生的收益已成为当地社区居民的主要经济来源之一。此外,冰川旅游相关设施建设还会产生一些间接经济收益,间接影响当地社区的经济社会发展(Haimayer,1989)。徐柯健(2008)的研究显示,通过开办家庭旅馆和开展游客接待服务,大香格里拉地区明永村村民年纯收入得到大幅提高,每户家庭饲养的骡马由原来的1匹发展到4匹,冰川旅游在促进农牧业发展、实施旅游扶贫等方面发挥了重要作用。其次,有一些研究分析了冰川旅游的社会影响,认为冰川旅游(如直升机冰川观光活动)会造成噪音污染(Wilson et al, 2014a),增加拥挤度(Corbett, 2001),对当地居民生活质量形成负面效应(Aspinall et al, 2011)。与此同时,冰川旅游的开展也会给目的地带去不同的价值观,影响冰川旅游社区的传统文化习俗。如Frömming (2009)研究认为,目前对乞力马扎罗冰川(Kilimanjaro Glacier)普遍的看法和评价是“一个美丽或崇高的地方”,这是基于西方的美学现代化的霸权,它压制了那些在冰川附近生活了几个世纪的土著部落的古老文化价值。

2.3.2 冰川旅游对生态环境的影响与应对

冰川旅游地环境脆弱,不当或超载的旅游行为会导致生物多样性的减少,对目的地环境造成不可逆的负面效应(Dhaulakhandi et al, 2010)。Hoover-Miller等(2013)的研究表明,前往阿拉斯加潮汐冰川观光的皮划艇和其他水上船只对基奈峡湾国家公园(Kenai Fjords National Park)的斑海豹群体造成了严重干扰。Marcella等(2017)分析了前往美国冰川湾国家公园(Glacier Bay National Park)的游轮对斑海雀的干扰,并量化了干扰范围和干扰程度,结果显示,在以小嘴斑海雀(Kittlitz's murrelets)为主的冰川湾上游,距游轮垂直距离850 m内的区域内,61%的斑海雀将会受到干扰,而在以云石海雀(marbled murrelets)占多数的下游,这个比例将增加到72%。另有一些研究分析了游客产生的废弃物的影响(Kuniyal, 2002; Kaseva et al, 2009; Goodwin et al, 2012),认为旅游业产生的废弃物会对当地自然环境和人类健康造成负面效应,如果不采取有效的废弃物管理措施,污染水平将会进一步提高,造成非常严重的后果。此外,冰川旅游活动通常在高度脆弱和相对难以接近的环境中开展,需要特定的基础设施,这些基础设施建设很容易破坏自然环境、冰川景观的美学价值以及荒野形象(Welling et al, 2015)。

冰川旅游环境保护和社区参与常常相伴而生,受到重点关注。Mccormack(1999)分析了1865—1965年间弗朗兹·约瑟夫冰川旅游业的发展历程,认为旅游业发展的核心主题是人与环境之间的关系以及这种关系对旅游发展与环境保护之间相互作用的影响。一个世纪以来,尽管每年有成千上万的游客前去参观,但旅游业的发展并没有给该冰川地区环境带来多大的变化,地区的环境仍然保留着荒野气质。成功之处一是自然力量拥有相对人类力量的优势,二是当地人(西海岸人)拥有较强的话语权,这两点减少了旅游发展与环境保护的冲突。由此可见,居民对冰川旅游的可持续发展发挥着不可小觑的作用,规划者必须意识到这点,从社区的角度来思考旅游开发问题,赋予社区居民更多的参与权,保证居民共享旅游业发展成果(赵佩燕等, 2016)。关于居民对冰川旅游开发所持的态度,Ning等(2013)的相关研究显示,丽江市的居民基本上都支持玉龙雪山发展冰川旅游,67%的居民对地区旅游业的发展现状满意,居民对旅游业的发展态度受路径依赖以及未来期望两大因素的影响。在环境保护方面,研究者强调冰川旅游要坚持保护性开发原则,并针对特定的区域提出了具体的发展思路与策略,如完善景区旅游规划,进行功能分区,建立环境监测站、确定环境容量、加强地区政府部门的合作、采用低碳技术、加大环保科研力度等(刘巧等, 2005; Liu et al, 2006; 王世金等, 2008; 陈璇等, 2014; 朱智等, 2016)。

2.4 气候变化对冰川旅游的影响及应对

气候变化是冰川旅游研究中最受关注的议题,具体的研究内容包括气候变化对冰川旅游的影响、气候变化感知以及气候变化应对措施。

2.4.1 气候变化对冰川旅游的影响

(1) 对冰川景观的影响。景观是开展冰川旅游活动的基础,冰川旅游景观对气候变化非常敏感。气候变暖会造成冰川地景观的变化,改变冰川旅游地核心景观的特色。短期来说,冰川的消融会形成一些小的地貌形态,如冰桌、冰蚀湖、冰面河、冰洞、冰蘑菇(王世金, 焦世泰等, 2012),构成新的景观系统。尽管它们的生命周期很短,但这些微型景观形态在局部尺度上增加了冰川地的地貌多样性(Diolaiuti et al, 2010),成为冰川地有吸引力的元素代表,部分弥补了冰川退缩带来的损失(Garavaglia et al, 2012)。冰川退缩形成的新的地貌在冰前区非常明显,最为典型的是冰碛湖,成为许多冰川旅游地的重要景观(Purdie, 2013)。此外,一些积雪覆盖的高山变成裸露的岩石山,特别是在大的山谷地区,许多冰川谷的较低部分已经不再被冰雪覆盖,新植被开始逐渐在新的裸露的岩石和山坡上繁殖,改变冰川地生物景观(Cannone et al, 2008)。但从长期来看,冰川退缩最终会减少景观的多样性,因为持续的消融会导致冰川以及这些微地貌的完全消失,最终导致冰川旅游目的地景观的消亡(王世金等, 2008)。

(2) 对旅游需求的影响。欣赏冰川景观是游客访问冰川旅游地的首要动机(Corbett, 2001; Garavaglia et al, 2012; Wilson, 2012; 朱智, 2015),如果游客不能欣赏到他们想象的冰川景观,旅游需求将大大减少(Stewart et al, 2016)。冰川是纯洁和完整的自然环境的象征,而持续的退缩使得这种形象变得越来越弱(Frey et al, 2010; Garavaglia et al, 2012),降低冰川的审美价值(Purdie, 2013),影响冰川体验活动质量(王世金, 焦世泰等, 2012),造成冰川地区的旅游吸引力下降(Garavaglia et al, 2012)。据调查显示,如果气候变化影响沃特顿冰川国际和平公园的景观,19%的游客将不再愿意到访该公园,36%的游客将减少对该国家公园的访问次数(Liu, 2016)。如何科学地衡量景观变化对冰川旅游需求的影响是研究的核心问题之一,其中最为典型的方法是假定一系列受气候变化影响的自然景观情景,以问卷或访谈的方式来明确游客未来的景观偏好。研究结果均显示,在冰川的持续退缩下,游客对冰川旅游区的访问需求将会减少(Yuan et al, 2006; Scott et al, 2007)。

然而,气候变化对旅游需求并不完全是负面作用。一些研究者认为气候变化是旅游需求增长的催化剂(Aall et al, 2005)。首先,气候变暖将会提高旅游舒适度,为更多的徒步旅行者提供进入高海拔地区的机会,从而吸引这部分游客进入冰川地区(Garavaglia et al, 2012)。其次,冰川的退缩和消失会刺激游客的出行欲望,让游客产生在冰川永久性改变之前见证其原始景观的冲动(Stewart et al, 2016),由此可能会增加“最后一游”(last chance)的游客数量(Purdie, 2013)。气候变化导致的自然环境变化究竟在多大程度上会影响旅游需求,学者们认为这还取决于地质地貌、游客适应环境的能力以及对环境和气候变化感知等因素(Welling et al, 2015)。再次,气候变化会降低低海拔地区的积雪可靠性,促使游客转移到高海拔冰川地区进行滑雪活动。Koenig等(1997)检验了20世纪80年代末连续3次缺雪冬季对瑞士冬季旅游业的影响,结果表明,较低地区的滑雪场由于缺少积雪遭受严重后果,而高海拔地区(尤其是冰川滑雪胜地)却受益于此,冰川滑雪场游客出现较大增长。

(3) 对冰川旅游活动和行为的影响。冰川旅游活动包括冰川徒步、冰川滑雪、穿越冰川、攀冰、雪地机动车、冰川湖皮划艇等。冰川退缩会增加冰川碎片覆盖,改变冰川的进入路径,增加冰川末端冰坡的陡峭程度,降低冰川或内部区域的可达性(Furunes et al, 2012; Purdie et al, 2015),改变旅游活动类型以及游客行为。

冰川徒步是最传统也是最普遍的冰川旅游形式。为了降低事故风险,大多数的徒步活动都要求在导游的引导下进行,游客需要依靠导游的经验来发现穿过冰川景观的最佳途径(Purdie, 2013)。然而,持续的冰川退缩使得这种徒步旅游活动愈发困难和危险。对此,旅游运营商不得不作出相应的改变,比如减少冰川旅游活动的频率和持续时间,转移到冰川的其他部分参观、用其他的冒险或自然活动来替代(Furunes et al, 2012)。例如1956年,新西兰奥拉基/库克山国家公园的塔斯曼冰川(Tasman Glacier, Aoraki/Mount Cook National Park)停止了传统的冰川徒步活动,转而发展冰川湖上的乘船探险之旅(Purdie, 2013)。对于冰川滑雪度假村来说,冰川退缩会严重影响其基础设施的相对高度,让滑雪旅游活动变得十分困难(Fischer et al, 2011)。

冰川的持续退缩还会导致其入口被堵,降低可进入性。Ritter等(2012)总结了20种影响冰川高山可进入性的变化因素,并将其分为4种类型,包括无冰区的变化,冰前区的变化、冰川表面的变化和山顶区域的变化。随着冰川不断变薄缩短,许多过去用于徒步行走的入口已难以通行,这一现象直接催生了“直升机+徒步” (heli-hikes)旅游产品。空中通道能让徒步者前往不太陡峭和破碎的冰川地区,尽管如此,直升机旅游并不能完全替代徒步旅游,缺乏步行通道会对冰川地游客数量产生明显的负面作用。一方面是因为相对于昂贵的直升机飞行,人们更加偏向于选择便宜的徒步旅游,另一方面是这种旅游交通方式高度依赖于天气条件(Purdie et al, 2015)。

(4) 对游客安全的影响。气候变化对冰川地的直接影响包括冰川退缩和冻土层的消融(Haeberli et al,1998),由此带来的相关风险和危害是多数研究侧重分析的主题。Ritter等(2012)分析了冰川退缩和冻土退化消融对山地冰川旅游带来的影响,包括自然灾害的强度、频率和空间分布的变化。冰川退缩和冻土消融会增大碎片坡度和岩壁不稳定、岩石坠落、山体滑坡、泥石流等风险,对前往冰川或冰川前缘地带的游客的生命形成严重威胁(Blair, 1994; Ritter et al, 2012)。冰川退缩会暴露出冰碛和疏松物质(Evans et al,1994),如果这些物质附着在陡峭的地形上,很容易成为山体滑坡和泥石流的源头(Huggel et al, 2004)。连续的质量损失会引发冰川表面逐渐下沉,进而暴露出不稳定的岩石,导致连续岩崩和落石的可能性非常高(Ritter et al, 2012)。在高海拔地区,冰川退缩和冻土消融与落石频率之间的关系已被证实,冰川退缩和冻土消融会导致落石灾害增加(Bürki et al, 2005; Allen et al, 2011; Purdie et al, 2015)。

2.4.2 气候变化感知研究

冰川地气候变化感知的研究包括游客对气候变化的感知、经营者对气候变化的感知以及当地居民对气候变化的感知。关于游客对气候变化的感知,主要研究游客对冰川景观变化的认识、感知和相关知识。Garavaglia等(2012)评估了游客对意大利弗尼冰川(Forni Glacier)景观变化的感知,结果显示,大多数游客能明显观察到冰川及其周边景观的变化,但对冰川退缩的程度不太了解。Wilson等(2014a)对新西兰西部泰普提尼国家公园游客的调查显示,93.3%的游客意识到冰川地的气候正在发生变化,84%的游客认为这将导致该地区冰川的持续退缩。Moreau (2010)的研究发现,游客对冰川退缩的了解并不总是来源于实地观测,更多地依赖于在社会中传播的先入为主的观点,大部分最有可能来自于媒体。这些研究还表明,游客对冰川退缩的了解程度会因为参与活动类型的不同而呈现出很大差异。根据Garavaglia等(2012)的观点,游客观察和理解景观的视角对其感知冰川景观的改变有着重大的影响。Moreau(2010)指出,徒步者和登山者对冰川景观的感知和理解的差异源于二者在冰川地停留时长和参与活动类型的不同。登山者在冰川地的平均停留时间更长,更了解该地区的地貌,并能更准确地掌握冰川退缩的情况。而徒步者主要是追求冰川地的美景,在冰川地停留时间较短,地貌知识比较贫乏,难以觉察到冰川退缩的情况。Wilson等(2014a)的调查发现,游客的来源地、年龄、学历等均是影响气候变化感知的重要因素。

关于旅游经营者的研究表明,冰川变化的感知与经营者从事的工作性质、工作年限、参与的程度等因素有关,经常接触冰川且工作年限较长的经营者对冰川的变化有着深刻的认识,包括冰川景观的退缩、冰川的宽度、纯洁度等(Wilson et al, 2014b)。然而,一些研究表明,经营者对气候变化以及对他们业务造成的潜在影响并不关心(Furunes et al, 2012),因为他们认为冰川退缩更有可能是当地降水和夏季气温的产物,而不是全球气候变化的结果(Espiner et al, 2014)。另外,冰川旅游地居民对气候变化及影响的感知也成为部分学者关注的议题。如王世金等(2013)通过问卷调查和访谈的方式,分析了玉龙雪山地区居民对当地气候变化及其影响与适应的感知认识,结果显示,居民对玉龙雪山地区气候变化的感知强度与科学研究结果总体一致性较高,居民对气候变化及其适应的感知强度总体上与海拔高度相关显著,而对气候变化及其影响的感知则与年龄显著相关。气候变化已促使山区居民调整产业结构,积极参与山区旅游、外出打工,以弥补微薄的农业收入。

2.4.3 冰川旅游应对气候变化的措施

根据受影响的对象类型及受影响的程度,学者们提出了气候变化的适应措施。对于气候变化造成的资源影响,学者们提出的适应举措包括使用化学品、添加剂或物理保护覆盖物减少冰川消融(Fischer et al, 2011),改变以往冰川观光和其他景点单一的开发模式,实行冰川雪山、森林草甸、河谷溪流等的组团式开发(王世金, 焦世泰等, 2012)。为解决气候带来的安全问题,研究者们认为应该采取一系列措施予以控制,具体包括:对冰川灾害进行定期评估(Frey et al, 2010)、让游客身着安全设备(Furunes et al, 2012)、计算游览的安全距离(Kohler, 2009)、合理布局危险标志和标牌(Espiner, 2001)以及划定安全区和禁止进入的地区(Bury et al, 2011; Wilson, 2012)。对于气候变化造成的可达性难度增大问题,学者们提出可以通过开发新的路径或基础设施(Ritter et al, 2012)以及使用替代性的交通方式(Purdie, 2013)来予以解决。为了更好地应对气候变化给冰川旅游景点带来的威胁,研究者提出,运营者们应当在冰川的可进入性、冰川产品的可获取性以及游客满意度等方面加以重视,而成功应对的关键往往取决于管理过程中的灵活性以及运营者对冰川变化作出快速反应的能力(Wilson et al, 2014b)。

3 研究述评

综合来看,冰川旅游研究是伴随着冰川旅游活动的发展而形成的,现有研究多从不同学科理论视角研究社会热点话题,而对于冰川旅游区域可持续发展的深入分析比较缺乏。当前研究包括2个主要特征:

(1) 研究议题、内容丰富,但对基础概念缺乏共识。冰川旅游研究涉及主题较多,具有学科交叉的明显特征,冰川旅游概念的界定尚未达成共识。学者们多将其与山地旅游、地质旅游、户外旅游等自然旅游范畴相提并论,从这些旅游研究的子领域出发来建立概念和理论,并赋予冰川旅游相应的内涵和属性,但缺乏从冰川旅游本体和旅游地发展的视角出发对冰川旅游概念进行界定,对于科学认识冰川旅游发展要素、结构和发展规律的促进作用还不够,研究中对冰川区域的划分也不同,研究对象常常产生泛化。

(2) 冰川旅游案例地类型多样,但研究区域较为集中。在冰川旅游案例地的选择上,已有成果形成了涵盖国家公园、自然保护区、风景名胜区等多个自然区域类型,在一定程度上呈现了多元化的特点。然而,从研究区域来看,现有文献呈现出高度集中的趋势,研究欧洲、北美、大洋洲地区的文献占到80%以上,亚洲、南美洲、非洲等地区的研究成果较少。而这些地区可能因为人文风俗、行政体制等因素的不同,对冰川旅游的发展产生关键影响。

从国内外研究成果比较来看,在研究阶段、研究内容和研究方法上都表现出较大差异。其一,研究阶段和时间上,国外的冰川旅游研究可以分为3个阶段,20世纪80年代和90年代的探索研究、21世纪初的集中研究以及2010年后的主题分化研究,研究内容从关注冰川旅游对目的地发展效应转变成聚焦于气候变化对冰川旅游的影响,再到全面研究冰川旅游的要素组织与构成。中国冰川旅游研究时间较晚,最早的一篇文献出现于2003年,当前仍然处在探索性研究阶段。其二,研究内容上,国外注重微观视角下冰川旅游游客行为、冰川旅游目的地社区发展、冰川旅游利益相关者群体、冰川旅游安全等内容,从人文社会角度研究冰川旅游的可持续发展问题;中国主要研究冰川资源利用,旅游开发模式、旅游空间布局、环境保护等议题,从自然角度探索人与自然和谐共生问题。其三,研究方法上,国外多基于气候学、地理学、社会学的研究方法进行定量分析,研究方法包括情景分析法、实验法、数理模型建构等,研究尺度较小,通常对具体的一个目的地进行案例研究;中国的研究多基于现实问题进行定性分析与阐述,少量的定量研究成果局限于利用卫星影像数据、统计数据和问卷调查数据,进行冰川旅游发展的评价,如基于AHP的中国冰川旅游发展潜力研究。

4 研究展望

综上可知,以往研究主要是各领域学者基于自身研究专长进行不同侧面的研究,比较分散,缺少系统性。本文认为应从区域可持续发展角度出发,综合资源科学、地理科学和旅游学科特点,以冰川旅游资源景观价值评估、冰川旅游资源开发适宜性、冰川旅游开发模式与规划体系、冰川旅游目的地管理和社区建设为主线开展系统研究(图3),从人地关系演化视角分析冰川旅游地的绿色发展问题,适应中国快速发展中的冰川旅游地科学发展的需求。

图3   中国冰川旅游研究理论框架

Fig.3   Theoretical framework of glacier tourism research in China

4.1 借鉴经验:冰川旅游资源开发利用的国际经验总结与借鉴

系统梳理国际上关于冰川旅游资源利用和冰川旅游目的地的管理经验,研究国外代表性冰川旅游景区的历史演变与发展规律,总结可供借鉴的旅游发展经验。从新的自然环境和社会文化环境出发,探讨全球气候变化、新的社会消费模式、社区文化等要素在冰川旅游目的地发展过程中的作用机制,探讨分析中国冰川旅游在利用现状、发展模式等方面存在的问题,研究冰川旅游的可持续发展动力机制。

4.2 选择适宜区域:冰川旅游资源景观价值和开发适宜性评估

建立科学的分类标准,对冰川旅游资源进行分类,采用科学的评估方法,评价不同类型冰川景观的价值。洁净度是影响游客感知冰川景观的重要指标,过多表碛覆盖将影响冰川的景观美感。建立以洁净度为主的冰川景观价值评价,结合自然环境条件、社会发展条件、市场发展潜力等要素构建适宜性评价指标体系,采用德尔菲法、层次分析法等综合评价法,界定不同冰川资源开发利用的适宜性和开发定位,为冰川资源利用方式提供科学参考。选取不同地理环境、资源类型等条件的冰川地作为案例地,分析冰川地的微环境系统,构建微观尺度的冰川旅游发展空间功能分区。

4.3 匹配开发模式:冰川旅游资源开发模式与规划体系构建

选取多尺度、多地域、多类型的冰川旅游目的地进行对比,总结归纳冰川旅游发展的典型模式,揭示不同模式的个性、共性特征以及形成原因。研究冰川旅游的区域发展效应,探讨不同开发模式引发的资源结构、产业结构、业态结构、市场结构的动态变化过程与要素互动特征。把握不同资源组合下的冰川旅游资源开发潜力,针对具有开发适宜性的冰川旅游资源,凝练符合地域特征的冰川旅游发展模式。探索冰川旅游地空间规划体制,建立相互衔接、融合协调、功能互补的空间规划体系。

4.4 区域管理:冰川旅游目的地管理和社区建设

冰川旅游涉及多方利益主体,未来应围绕管理者—投资者—运营者—游客—社区多元主体开展综合研究,包括冰川旅游目的地的管理体制和制度建设、目的地运营模式、从业者的经营过程、产品业态结构、游客的消费行为特征、社区参与响应等。探讨冰川旅游与社区发展之间的互动关系,研究旅游业发展带来的人口、从业、文化等经济社会要素的变化效应,加强社区赋权与增能研究,探究推进社区参与的优化措施。

4.5 创新研究方法:多学科知识综合、多技术方法 应用

冰川旅游是横跨自然科学、社会科学和人文科学的一个研究领域,具有多学科交叉的典型特征。冰川旅游研究需要融合不同学科的知识体系与研究方法,在内容和方法上加强冰川学、气候学、地质学、地理学、社会学、经济学、旅游学等多学科的交流。重视冰川旅游理论构建和实证分析,运用3S技术、数理建模、参与式观察、深度访谈、问卷调查等方法,从宏观和微观范畴剖析冰川旅游的内生增长机制、社会结构演化等议题。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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[J]. 西北大学学报(自然科学版), 44(6): 1005-1008.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在全球性气候变暖的背景下,冰川消融已成为人类面临的重大环境问题。海螺沟冰川是我国典型的季风海洋性冰川,也是世界范围内最完整的山岳冰川,具有高度的观赏性和科研性。据观察,近百年来该冰川表现出持续消融的状态,保护已迫在眉睫。从规模、结构及分布3个方面论述了海螺沟冰川的地质特征,并探讨了冰川的形成和物质平衡的条件。根据温度、海拔以及表面覆盖物质成份3项对冰川消融起主要作用的因子,针对海螺沟冰川消融的严峻现状和冰川地质遗迹开发和保护具体情况,提出低碳旅游产品开发方案与保护建议。

[Chen X, Tan J X.2014.

The model of low carbon tourism development of Hailuogou Glacier Park

. Journal of Northwest University (Natural Science Edition), 44(6): 1005-1008. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在全球性气候变暖的背景下,冰川消融已成为人类面临的重大环境问题。海螺沟冰川是我国典型的季风海洋性冰川,也是世界范围内最完整的山岳冰川,具有高度的观赏性和科研性。据观察,近百年来该冰川表现出持续消融的状态,保护已迫在眉睫。从规模、结构及分布3个方面论述了海螺沟冰川的地质特征,并探讨了冰川的形成和物质平衡的条件。根据温度、海拔以及表面覆盖物质成份3项对冰川消融起主要作用的因子,针对海螺沟冰川消融的严峻现状和冰川地质遗迹开发和保护具体情况,提出低碳旅游产品开发方案与保护建议。
[2] 姜辽, 赵瑞, 张述林. 2008.

中国西部山地冰川的旅游性及其空间开发思维

[J]. 宁夏师范学院学报(自然科学), 29(3): 63-66.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-1331.2008.03.015      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

本文回顾了中国冰川开发的历 程,接着从冰川发育条件及其物理性质、冰川景观特色、冰川的旅游性等角度出发对中国西部山地冰川进行类型划分;之后鉴赏冰川资源的景观特色,并以此为基础 解读中国西部山地冰川的旅游性;最后,引入且剖析空间思维理论的内涵,运用点式思维、线式思维、面式思维、体式思维等空间思维理念于冰川旅游开发之中,为 中国西部山地冰川旅游的空间开发指出方向.

[Jiang L, Zhao R, Zhang S L.2008.

Tourism characteristic and space development thinking of mountain glaciers in western China

. Journal of Ningxia Teachers University (Natural Science), 29(3): 63-66. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-1331.2008.03.015      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

本文回顾了中国冰川开发的历 程,接着从冰川发育条件及其物理性质、冰川景观特色、冰川的旅游性等角度出发对中国西部山地冰川进行类型划分;之后鉴赏冰川资源的景观特色,并以此为基础 解读中国西部山地冰川的旅游性;最后,引入且剖析空间思维理论的内涵,运用点式思维、线式思维、面式思维、体式思维等空间思维理念于冰川旅游开发之中,为 中国西部山地冰川旅游的空间开发指出方向.
[3] 李泽萱. 2015.

海螺沟国家冰川森林公园生态旅游解说评价与优化

[D]. 成都: 四川农业大学.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Li Z X.2015.

The evaluation and ptimization of eco-tourism interpretation of Hailuogou national Glacier Forest Park

. Chengdou, China: Sichuan Agricultural University. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[4] 刘丹萍, 阎顺. 2002.

天山1号冰川旅游资源可持续利用初探

[J]. 地域研究与开发, 21(2): 72-75.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Liu D P, Yan S.2002.

Sustainable utilization and management of tourism resources in No.1 Glacier in Xinjiang Tianshan Mountains

. Areal Research and Development, 21(2): 72-75. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[5] 刘巧, 范继辉, 张文敬. 2005.

中国香格里拉生态旅游区冰川旅游资源的特征及其开发

[J]. 四川地质学报, 25(4): 242-245.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0995.2005.04.010      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

位于川、滇、藏三省交界的香格里拉生态旅游区,是三省自2002年以来协商共同打造的中国的最大的高原生态旅游区.这一区域具有独特的高原雪山、湖泊、草原、森林、野生动植物等自然景观,正是举世闻名的"香格里拉"描绘的写照.冰川旅游资源是香格里拉景观的一个重要组成部分,本文对该区域的冰川资源,即冰川数量、分布及其形态特征作了一个总结,并探讨了该区域冰川旅游资源的开发策略.

[Liu Q, Fan J H, Zhang W J.2005.

Characteristics and development for glacial tourist resources in the Shanglira ecologic tourist area, China

. Acta Geologica Sichuan, 25(4): 242-245. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0995.2005.04.010      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

位于川、滇、藏三省交界的香格里拉生态旅游区,是三省自2002年以来协商共同打造的中国的最大的高原生态旅游区.这一区域具有独特的高原雪山、湖泊、草原、森林、野生动植物等自然景观,正是举世闻名的"香格里拉"描绘的写照.冰川旅游资源是香格里拉景观的一个重要组成部分,本文对该区域的冰川资源,即冰川数量、分布及其形态特征作了一个总结,并探讨了该区域冰川旅游资源的开发策略.
[6] 刘时银, 姚晓军, 郭万钦, . 2015.

基于第二次冰川编目的中国冰川现状

[J]. 地理学报, 70(1): 3-16.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201501001      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以2004年之后的Landsat TM/ETM+和ASTER遥感影像为基础,参考第一次中国冰川目录及其他文献资料,经过影像校正、自动解译、野外考察、人工修订、交互检查和成果审定等技术环节,完成占全国冰川总面积85.5%的现状冰川编目,确定中国目前共有冰川48571条,总面积约5.18×10βkm,约占全国国土面积的0.54%,冰川储量约4.3~4.7×10βkm。中国冰川数量和面积分别以面积<0.5βkm的冰川和面积介于1.0~50.0βkm的冰川为主,面积最大的冰川是音苏盖提冰川(359.05βkm)。中国西部14座山系(高原)均有冰川分布,其中昆仑山冰川数量最多,其次是天山、念青唐古拉山、喜马拉雅山和喀喇昆仑山,这5座山系冰川数量占全国冰川总数量的72.3%;冰川面积和冰储量位列前3位的山系分别为昆仑山、念青唐古拉山和天山,尽管喀喇昆仑山冰川数量和面积均小于喜马拉雅山,但前者冰储量高于后者。从冰川海拔分布来看,海拔4500~6500βm之间是冰川集中发育区域,约占全国冰川总面积的4/5以上。冰川资源在各流域分布差异显著,东亚内流区(5Y)是中国冰川分布数量最多、面积最大的一级流域,约占全国冰川总量的2/5以上;黄河流域(5J)是冰川数量最少、规模最小的一级流域,仅有冰川164条,面积126.72βkm。新疆和西藏的冰川面积和冰储量约占全国冰川总面积的9/10。

[Liu S Y, Yao X J, Guo W Q, et al.2015.

The contemporary glaciers in China based on the Second Chinese Glacier Inventory

. Acta Geographica Sinica, 70(1): 3-16. ]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201501001      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

以2004年之后的Landsat TM/ETM+和ASTER遥感影像为基础,参考第一次中国冰川目录及其他文献资料,经过影像校正、自动解译、野外考察、人工修订、交互检查和成果审定等技术环节,完成占全国冰川总面积85.5%的现状冰川编目,确定中国目前共有冰川48571条,总面积约5.18×10βkm,约占全国国土面积的0.54%,冰川储量约4.3~4.7×10βkm。中国冰川数量和面积分别以面积<0.5βkm的冰川和面积介于1.0~50.0βkm的冰川为主,面积最大的冰川是音苏盖提冰川(359.05βkm)。中国西部14座山系(高原)均有冰川分布,其中昆仑山冰川数量最多,其次是天山、念青唐古拉山、喜马拉雅山和喀喇昆仑山,这5座山系冰川数量占全国冰川总数量的72.3%;冰川面积和冰储量位列前3位的山系分别为昆仑山、念青唐古拉山和天山,尽管喀喇昆仑山冰川数量和面积均小于喜马拉雅山,但前者冰储量高于后者。从冰川海拔分布来看,海拔4500~6500βm之间是冰川集中发育区域,约占全国冰川总面积的4/5以上。冰川资源在各流域分布差异显著,东亚内流区(5Y)是中国冰川分布数量最多、面积最大的一级流域,约占全国冰川总量的2/5以上;黄河流域(5J)是冰川数量最少、规模最小的一级流域,仅有冰川164条,面积126.72βkm。新疆和西藏的冰川面积和冰储量约占全国冰川总面积的9/10。
[7] 宋巍, 李建伟, 张威, . 2017.

基于开发适宜性评价的国家地质公园旅游空间布局研究: 以玉龙雪山冰川国家地质公园为例[C]// 持续发展理性规划: 2017中国城市规划年会论文集(13风景环境规划)

. 北京: 中国城市规划学会: 389-399.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Song W, Li J W, Zhang W.2017.

Research on tourism spatial layout of national geological park based on development suitability evaluation: A case study of Yulong Mountain Glacier National Geological Park // Sustainable development & rational planning-Proceedings of Annual National Planning Conference 2017 (Section 13: Landscape and environmental planning)

. Beijing, China: China Urban Planning Association: 389-399. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[8] 王世金, 何元庆, 和献中, . 2008.

我国海洋型冰川旅游资源的保护性开发研究: 以丽江市玉龙雪山景区为例

[J]. 云南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 40(6): 38-43.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-5110.2008.06.007      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

海洋型冰川所在山地气候水热组合状况最佳,自然旅游资源类型多,生物多样性丰富,可进入性 强,离客源市场较近,许多冰川资源现已被开发为特色旅游产品。然而,景区频繁的人类活动,势必会造成冰川区生态环境破坏,从而殃及冰川的稳定性。目前,全 球变暖,人类活动加剧,世界大部分山地冰川都因气候变暖而消退,特别是海洋型冰川,由于其冰温较高,运动速度较快,对气候变暖反应更为敏感,退缩幅度更 大。目前,如何依托已开发景区先进经验科学地保护与开发现代冰川和古冰川遗迹旅游资源,促使冰川区区域旅游可持续发展已经成为当前冰川旅游开发者、研究者 和经营管理者所思考的重要议题。

[Wang S J, He Y Q, He X Z.2008.

Tourism-resource protection and development in a typical eemperate-glacier region in China: A case study of Yulong Snow Mountain scenic region

. Journal of Yunnan Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences), 40(6): 38-43. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-5110.2008.06.007      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

海洋型冰川所在山地气候水热组合状况最佳,自然旅游资源类型多,生物多样性丰富,可进入性 强,离客源市场较近,许多冰川资源现已被开发为特色旅游产品。然而,景区频繁的人类活动,势必会造成冰川区生态环境破坏,从而殃及冰川的稳定性。目前,全 球变暖,人类活动加剧,世界大部分山地冰川都因气候变暖而消退,特别是海洋型冰川,由于其冰温较高,运动速度较快,对气候变暖反应更为敏感,退缩幅度更 大。目前,如何依托已开发景区先进经验科学地保护与开发现代冰川和古冰川遗迹旅游资源,促使冰川区区域旅游可持续发展已经成为当前冰川旅游开发者、研究者 和经营管理者所思考的重要议题。
[9] 王世金, 焦世泰, 牛贺文. 2012.

中国冰川旅游资源开发模式与对策研究

[J]. 自然资源学报, 27(8): 1276-1285.

https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2012.08.002      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

中国冰川资源规模巨大,形态各异,在国内旅游市场中具有绝对的垄断性地位。然而,我国冰川旅游发展却较为缓慢,景点稀少,与冰川资源禀赋极不相符,与国外冰川旅游发展差距较大。冰川旅游资源的吸引功能并非由冰川旅游单体决定,往往由冰川及周边景观的组合程度大小决定。鉴于此,中国冰川旅游需要改变以往冰川观光和其他单一景点开发模式,进而向冰川、雪山、森林、草甸、湖泊、峡谷与民族文化组团式开发转变,通过冰川与其他景观的组团式开发模式,扩展其冰川旅游类型与内涵,延伸其高山带山地旅游产业链,提升我国冰川旅游产品品牌价值,以此为我国冰川资源优势转变为经济优势提供理论与实践支持。

[Wang S J, Jiao S T, Niu H W.2012.

Patterns and strategies of glacier tourism resources development in China

. Journal of Natural Resources. 27(8): 1276-1285. ]

https://doi.org/10.11849/zrzyxb.2012.08.002      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

中国冰川资源规模巨大,形态各异,在国内旅游市场中具有绝对的垄断性地位。然而,我国冰川旅游发展却较为缓慢,景点稀少,与冰川资源禀赋极不相符,与国外冰川旅游发展差距较大。冰川旅游资源的吸引功能并非由冰川旅游单体决定,往往由冰川及周边景观的组合程度大小决定。鉴于此,中国冰川旅游需要改变以往冰川观光和其他单一景点开发模式,进而向冰川、雪山、森林、草甸、湖泊、峡谷与民族文化组团式开发转变,通过冰川与其他景观的组团式开发模式,扩展其冰川旅游类型与内涵,延伸其高山带山地旅游产业链,提升我国冰川旅游产品品牌价值,以此为我国冰川资源优势转变为经济优势提供理论与实践支持。
[10] 王世金, 李曼, 谭春萍. 2013.

山区居民对气候变化及其影响与适应的感知分析: 以玉龙雪山地区为例

[J]. 气候变化研究进展, 9(3): 216-222.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1719.2013.03.010      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

通过问卷调查和访谈,揭示了青藏高原东南缘玉龙雪山地区居民对当地气候变化及其影响与适应的感知认识。结果表明:居民对玉龙雪山地区气候变化的感知强度与科学研究结果总体上具有很高的一致性。居民对气候变化对农业环境影响的感知不很强烈,认为气候变化并未影响到农作物长势和产量,但对气候变化导致农作物病虫害略有增加和作物生长期延长的感知却持较高赞同度。居民对气候变化及其适应的感知强度总体上与海拔高度相关显著,而对气候变化及其影响的感知则与年龄显著相关。气候变化已促使山区居民调整产业结构,发展低耗水农业经济,并积极参与山区旅游、外出打工,以弥补微薄的农业收入。同时,居民也期望政府能够给予他们一定的经济补偿,以弥补由于干旱和倒春寒等带来的经济损失。

[Wang S J, Li M, Tan C P.2013.

Mountainous residents' perceptions and attitudes on climate change, its impacts and adaptations: A case study of Mt.Yulong in southeastern Tibetan Plateau

. Progressus Inquisitiones de Mutatione Climatis, 9(3): 216-222. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1719.2013.03.010      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

通过问卷调查和访谈,揭示了青藏高原东南缘玉龙雪山地区居民对当地气候变化及其影响与适应的感知认识。结果表明:居民对玉龙雪山地区气候变化的感知强度与科学研究结果总体上具有很高的一致性。居民对气候变化对农业环境影响的感知不很强烈,认为气候变化并未影响到农作物长势和产量,但对气候变化导致农作物病虫害略有增加和作物生长期延长的感知却持较高赞同度。居民对气候变化及其适应的感知强度总体上与海拔高度相关显著,而对气候变化及其影响的感知则与年龄显著相关。气候变化已促使山区居民调整产业结构,发展低耗水农业经济,并积极参与山区旅游、外出打工,以弥补微薄的农业收入。同时,居民也期望政府能够给予他们一定的经济补偿,以弥补由于干旱和倒春寒等带来的经济损失。
[11] 王世金, 秦大河, 任贾文. 2012.

中国冰川旅游资源空间开发布局研究

[J]. 地理科学, 32(4): 464-470.

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在回顾中国冰川旅游的发展历程,分析冰川旅游发展的优劣势条件的基础上。按照“围绕地域空间结构、立足旅游资源特色、突出中心城市、依托交通干线、形成网络市场”的“点-轴系统”规划思路,提出了中国冰川旅游“十心、三带、五区”的空间开发结构。伴随着青藏铁路复线工程、川藏与滇藏铁路的规划设计,以及在西部跨省区合作项目“丝绸之路旅游带、青藏铁路旅游带、大香格里拉生态旅游圈总体规划”逐步实施的机遇下,中国将以其丰富而独特的冰川旅游资源,强烈地吸引国内外旅游者前来观光旅游。

[Wang S J, Qin D H, Ren J W.2012.

Spatial development and distribution of glacier tourism in China

. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 32(4): 464-470. ]

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在回顾中国冰川旅游的发展历程,分析冰川旅游发展的优劣势条件的基础上。按照“围绕地域空间结构、立足旅游资源特色、突出中心城市、依托交通干线、形成网络市场”的“点-轴系统”规划思路,提出了中国冰川旅游“十心、三带、五区”的空间开发结构。伴随着青藏铁路复线工程、川藏与滇藏铁路的规划设计,以及在西部跨省区合作项目“丝绸之路旅游带、青藏铁路旅游带、大香格里拉生态旅游圈总体规划”逐步实施的机遇下,中国将以其丰富而独特的冰川旅游资源,强烈地吸引国内外旅游者前来观光旅游。
[12] 王世金, 赵井东. 2011.

中国冰川旅游发展潜力评价及其空间开发策略

[J]. 地理研究, 30(8): 1528-1542.

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2011080018      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper takes location and transportation, resources and environment, infrastructure and development, and socio-economic potential as important factors, and constructs a potential assessment system of glacier tourism development. Employing hierarchical analysis and analytic hierarch process, this paper evaluates synthetically glacier tourism development potential of 32 administrative units at prefectural level in China's glacier area, and puts forward some relevant spatial development strategies. Some results are obtained as follows. (1) The regions with higher potential index of location and transportation are concentrated mainly in provincial capitals and their surrounding cities, which are characterized by geographical advantages. (2) The regions with richer glacier resource, bigger glacier scale, or better combination advantage between glaciers and the surrounding landscapes, or most enriched tourism resources have mostly higher potential index of resources and environment. (3) The regions with ongoing glacier tourism have higher potential index of infrastructure and development. (4) The regions with higher potential index of socio-economy include mainly provincial capitals and surrounding cities with better industrial bases, and some of the regions have taken tourism industry as a pillar. Generally, the regions with higher comprehensive potential index have better traffic conditions, richer glacier resources, better economic and social background, closer tourist market, better access to glacier area, or richer regional tourism resources.

[Wang S J, Zhao J D.2011.

Potential evaluation and spatial development strategies of glacier tourism in China

. Geographical Research, 30(8): 1528-1542. ]

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2011080018      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper takes location and transportation, resources and environment, infrastructure and development, and socio-economic potential as important factors, and constructs a potential assessment system of glacier tourism development. Employing hierarchical analysis and analytic hierarch process, this paper evaluates synthetically glacier tourism development potential of 32 administrative units at prefectural level in China's glacier area, and puts forward some relevant spatial development strategies. Some results are obtained as follows. (1) The regions with higher potential index of location and transportation are concentrated mainly in provincial capitals and their surrounding cities, which are characterized by geographical advantages. (2) The regions with richer glacier resource, bigger glacier scale, or better combination advantage between glaciers and the surrounding landscapes, or most enriched tourism resources have mostly higher potential index of resources and environment. (3) The regions with ongoing glacier tourism have higher potential index of infrastructure and development. (4) The regions with higher potential index of socio-economy include mainly provincial capitals and surrounding cities with better industrial bases, and some of the regions have taken tourism industry as a pillar. Generally, the regions with higher comprehensive potential index have better traffic conditions, richer glacier resources, better economic and social background, closer tourist market, better access to glacier area, or richer regional tourism resources.
[13] 伍光和, 沈永平. 2007.

中国冰川旅游资源及其开发

[J]. 冰川冻土, 29(4): 664-667.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-0240.2007.04.023      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国的三大类现代冰川中,海洋型冰川以其末端海拔最低、易于到达、冰川地貌复杂多样和周围自然风光优美而最能吸引众多游客,因此最宜开展旅游活动;亚大陆型冰川次之;极大陆型冰川雪线及冰舌末端海拔最高,不易到达,周边自然风光相对单调,只适合特殊群体进行登山、探险和科学考察.从形态类型考察,冰帽、悬冰川和冰斗冰川一般只适宜观赏,而山谷冰川不仅具有观赏价值,游客还可登上冰舌,直接体验冰上生活.最后还对川、滇、藏、青、甘、新六省区冰川旅游资源的开发提出了具体建议.

[Wu G H, Shen Y P.2007.

Glaciers tourism resources in China and their development

. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 29(4): 664-667. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-0240.2007.04.023      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国的三大类现代冰川中,海洋型冰川以其末端海拔最低、易于到达、冰川地貌复杂多样和周围自然风光优美而最能吸引众多游客,因此最宜开展旅游活动;亚大陆型冰川次之;极大陆型冰川雪线及冰舌末端海拔最高,不易到达,周边自然风光相对单调,只适合特殊群体进行登山、探险和科学考察.从形态类型考察,冰帽、悬冰川和冰斗冰川一般只适宜观赏,而山谷冰川不仅具有观赏价值,游客还可登上冰舌,直接体验冰上生活.最后还对川、滇、藏、青、甘、新六省区冰川旅游资源的开发提出了具体建议.
[14] 徐柯健. 2008.

大香格里拉地区旅游开发模式比较分析

[J]. 地理科学进展, 27(3): 134-140.

https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2008.03.019      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<p>大香格里拉地区指青藏高原东南部横断山区的主体部分,行政上包括藏东南、滇西北、川西南。这里是世界 上少有的生物多样性和文化多样性中心之一,含有特别丰富的旅游资源。根据实地调查和分析,本文将大香格里拉 地区现存的开发模式归纳成三类:明永模式、海螺沟模式和玉龙雪山模式,并对其进行了具体分析。认为明永模式 比较成功,有利于自然保护和增加当地居民收入;几个模式普遍存在的问题包括:大部分都过分追求经济效益;景 区管理存在严重的体制问题,特别是行政权、经营权、所有权三权混淆;国家所有权受到条块的多元分割,国家作为 国有资源所有者代表的地位模糊。同时建议国家人大常委会加强对世界遗产、国家自然保护区、国家地质公园、国 家级风景名胜区等这一类遗产类景区的立法工作,并建立严格监督和管理体系,禁止采取企业化经营模式;尊重和 发挥传统的民族宗教信仰和禁忌在保护自然中的作用;积极鼓励社区居民参与保护和监督;扶持和培育环境NGO, 提高民众的生态和环境保护意识,促进大香格里拉地区的可持续发展。</p>

[Xu K J.2008.

Comparison and analysis of tourist development models in grand Shangri-la region

. Progress in Geography, 27(3): 134-140. ]

https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2008.03.019      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<p>大香格里拉地区指青藏高原东南部横断山区的主体部分,行政上包括藏东南、滇西北、川西南。这里是世界 上少有的生物多样性和文化多样性中心之一,含有特别丰富的旅游资源。根据实地调查和分析,本文将大香格里拉 地区现存的开发模式归纳成三类:明永模式、海螺沟模式和玉龙雪山模式,并对其进行了具体分析。认为明永模式 比较成功,有利于自然保护和增加当地居民收入;几个模式普遍存在的问题包括:大部分都过分追求经济效益;景 区管理存在严重的体制问题,特别是行政权、经营权、所有权三权混淆;国家所有权受到条块的多元分割,国家作为 国有资源所有者代表的地位模糊。同时建议国家人大常委会加强对世界遗产、国家自然保护区、国家地质公园、国 家级风景名胜区等这一类遗产类景区的立法工作,并建立严格监督和管理体系,禁止采取企业化经营模式;尊重和 发挥传统的民族宗教信仰和禁忌在保护自然中的作用;积极鼓励社区居民参与保护和监督;扶持和培育环境NGO, 提高民众的生态和环境保护意识,促进大香格里拉地区的可持续发展。</p>
[15] 张九天, 何霄嘉, 上官冬辉, . 2012.

冰川加剧消融对我国西北干旱区的影响及其适应对策

[J]. 冰川冻土, 34(4): 848-854.

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

西北干旱区是我国生态最脆弱的地区之一, 也是国家安全和生态安全的核心区.冰川是西北干旱区的"固体水库", 高山冰雪融水一直是当地赖以生存和发展的重要水源, 是该地区独特的绿洲经济的命脉.在气候变暖的大背景下, 西北干旱区冰川加剧消融退缩, 冰川数量和规模均呈减少趋势.未来冰川将进一步萎缩, 冰川融水对河流补给将有显著变化.冰川加剧消融已严重影响到该地区水资源变化格局、 农业可持续发展和生态系统稳定, 对现有水资源管理与灾害防治等对策与措施提出巨大挑战.应采取从转变经济发展用水和管理理念, 到提高适应冰川消融的水利建设、 加强防灾与预测技术研究等方面的积极探索适应对策, 以应对气候变暖背景下冰川加剧消融给西北地区带来的挑战.

[Zhang J T, He X J, Shangguan D H, et al.2012.

Impact of intensive glacier ablation on arid regions of northwest China and its countermeasure

. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 34(4): 848-854. ]

URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

西北干旱区是我国生态最脆弱的地区之一, 也是国家安全和生态安全的核心区.冰川是西北干旱区的"固体水库", 高山冰雪融水一直是当地赖以生存和发展的重要水源, 是该地区独特的绿洲经济的命脉.在气候变暖的大背景下, 西北干旱区冰川加剧消融退缩, 冰川数量和规模均呈减少趋势.未来冰川将进一步萎缩, 冰川融水对河流补给将有显著变化.冰川加剧消融已严重影响到该地区水资源变化格局、 农业可持续发展和生态系统稳定, 对现有水资源管理与灾害防治等对策与措施提出巨大挑战.应采取从转变经济发展用水和管理理念, 到提高适应冰川消融的水利建设、 加强防灾与预测技术研究等方面的积极探索适应对策, 以应对气候变暖背景下冰川加剧消融给西北地区带来的挑战.
[16] 赵佩燕, 王忠斌, 琼达. 2016.

旅游目的地社区旅游规划探讨: 以西藏米堆冰川景区为例

[J]. 四川林勘设计, (1): 48-51.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Zhao P Y, Wang Z B, Qiong D.2016.

Discussion on the community tourism planning of tourist destination: Taking Midui Glacier Scenic area as an example

. Sichuan Forestry Exploration and Design, (1): 48-51. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[17] 郑本兴. 1996. 中国冰川区生态旅游与环境保护问题 [M] //孙文昌. 区域旅游开发与旅游业发展. 北京: 地质出版社: 92-96.

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[Zhen B X.1996. Ecotourism and environmental protection in glacier areas of China // Sun W C. Regional tourism development and tourism development. Beijing, China: Geological Publishing House: 92-96. ]

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[18] 朱智. 2015.

四川海螺沟冰川森林公园旅游客流特征研究

[J]. 惠州学院学报, 35(4): 66-69.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-5934.2015.04.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

对四川省海螺沟冰川森林公园游客的数量动态特征进行分析,结果表明:公园年游客数量从2000—2011年呈逐步上升趋势,增幅增大;公众假期、冰川景观质量是影响公园月客流量的主要原因,5月、8月、10月、周末都是客流量集中期;景区对外交通、客源地经济水平是影响公园旅游客源分布的重要因素,公园客源地分布主要集中在四川省内(46.52%)及重庆(26%)、广东、上海等省外发达地区。

[Zhu Z.2015.

On characteristics of visitor flow to Hailuogou Glacier Forest Park in Sichuan

. Journal of Huizhou University, 35(4): 66-69. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-5934.2015.04.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

对四川省海螺沟冰川森林公园游客的数量动态特征进行分析,结果表明:公园年游客数量从2000—2011年呈逐步上升趋势,增幅增大;公众假期、冰川景观质量是影响公园月客流量的主要原因,5月、8月、10月、周末都是客流量集中期;景区对外交通、客源地经济水平是影响公园旅游客源分布的重要因素,公园客源地分布主要集中在四川省内(46.52%)及重庆(26%)、广东、上海等省外发达地区。
[19] 朱智, 李梅. 2016.

四川海螺沟冰川森林公园可持续旅游发展研究

[J]. 环境科学与管理, 41(2): 155-160.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1212.2016.02.037      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

森林公园是国家具有代表性或特殊保护价值的人文与自然资源地区,发展旅游是主要功能之一.以四川海螺沟冰川森林公园为例,介绍了海螺沟所在地区的自然地理和社会经济概况,提炼出海螺沟的五大资源特色,分析了旅游发展的现状,指出了海螺沟旅游发展存在的问题.海螺沟应从开发多元化的森林旅游产品、提升旅游服务基础设施、完善公园解说系统规划与建设、加强环境管理与监测工作等四个方面进行改进与提升,最终实现公园旅游的可持续发展.

[Zhu Z, Li M.2016.

Study on sustainable tourism development of Hailuogou Glacier Forest Park in Sichuan

. Environmental Science and Management, 41(2): 155-160. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1212.2016.02.037      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

森林公园是国家具有代表性或特殊保护价值的人文与自然资源地区,发展旅游是主要功能之一.以四川海螺沟冰川森林公园为例,介绍了海螺沟所在地区的自然地理和社会经济概况,提炼出海螺沟的五大资源特色,分析了旅游发展的现状,指出了海螺沟旅游发展存在的问题.海螺沟应从开发多元化的森林旅游产品、提升旅游服务基础设施、完善公园解说系统规划与建设、加强环境管理与监测工作等四个方面进行改进与提升,最终实现公园旅游的可持续发展.
[20] Aall C, Høyer K G, Hall C M, et al.2005.

Tourism and climate change adaptation: The Norwegian case

[J]. Tourism Recreation & Climate Change, 40(1): 434-435.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14766825.2014.965902      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Following an overview of climate change and its effects on tourism, this chapter presents examples of how the tourism industry in Norway has adapted to climate change and discusses different ways to strengthen adaptive measures. Three dimensions of climate change adaptation in the case of tourism are differentiated: adaptation to climatic changes in itself (e.g., the emergence of 'climate chang...
[21] Allen S K, Cox S C, Owens I F.2011.

Rock avalanches and other landslides in the central Southern Alps of New Zealand: A regional study considering possible climate change impacts

[J]. Landslides, 8(1): 33-48.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-010-0222-z      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

AbstractSlope instabilities in the central Southern Alps, New Zealand, are assessed in relation to their geological and topographic distribution, with emphasis given to the spatial distribution of the most recent failures relative to zones of possible permafrost degradation and glacial recession. Five hundred nine mostly late-Pleistocene- to Holocene-aged landslides have been identified, affecting 2% of the study area. Rock avalanches were distinguished in the dataset, being the dominant failure type from Alpine slopes about and east of the Main Divide of the Alps, while other landslide types occur more frequently at lower elevations and from schist slopes closer to the Alpine Fault. The pre-1950 landslide record is incomplete, but mapped failures have prevailed from slopes facing west orthwest, suggesting a structural control on slope failure distribution. Twenty rock avalanches and large rockfalls are known to have fallen since 1950, predominating from extremely steep east outheast facing slopes, mostly from the hanging wall of the Main Divide Fault Zone. Nineteen occurred within 300 vertical metres above or below glacial ice; 13 have source areas within 300 vertical metres of the estimated lower permafrost boundary, where degrading permafrost is expected. The prevalence of recent failures occurring from glacier-proximal slopes and from slopes near the lower permafrost limit is demonstrably higher than from other slopes about the Main Divide. Many recent failures have been smaller than those recorded pre-1950, and the influence of warming may be ephemeral and difficult to demonstrate relative to simultaneous effects of weather, erosion, seismicity, and uplift along an active plate margin.
[22] Aspinall A, Cukier J, Doberstein B.2011.

Quality of life assessments and social sustainability: Ski tourism development in Invermere, British Columbia

[J]. Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy & Management, 13(2): 179-201.

https://doi.org/10.1142/S1464333211003845      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility of using quality of life assessments (QLA) to evaluate social sustainability and impacts of a hypothetical tourism development modelled after the currently-proposed Jumbo Glacier Resort. Results of this study indicated that there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-development scenarios on respondents' perceived quality of life: respondents perceived that their quality of life would be lower after the development of the resort. Also, respondents' general attitudes towards tourism development, and the specific Jumbo Glacier Resort project, had a statistically significant impact on their expected quality of life, and their interpretation of how tourism impacts their quality of life. The study suggests that quality of life assessment can make valuable contributions to the fields of social impact assessment and social sustainability analysis, and the results of such assessments can make valuable contributions to the fields of sustainable community development.
[23] Beza B B.2010.

The aesthetic value of a mountain landscape: A study of the Mt. Everest Trek

[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 97: 306-317.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[24] Blair R W.1994.

Moraine and valley wall collapse due to rapid deglaciation in Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand

[J]. Mountain Research & Development, 14(4): 347-358.

https://doi.org/10.2307/3673731      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The Tasman Glacier and its tributaries have been down-wasting since the 1880s. Until relatively recently reduction of ice mass had little effect on glacial valley topography but, beginning in the early 1960s, lateral moraines and even the bedrock valley walls began to undergo slope failure. The precursors to failure included tension cracks and the development of upslope facing fault scarps. The slope failure then rapidly progressed to widespread bedrock debris slides, topples, and frequent debris avalanches. Mountaineering huts and long established trails either have been moved or demolished as a result of this slope failure. The activation of all these slope failures is due directly to the rapid down-wasting of the valley glaciers. It is estimated that the Tasman ice surface is lowering 3.5 ± 0.5 m annually. This rapid withdrawal of ice removes the lateral support of the valley walls which, as a consequence, are re-equilibrating, via slope failure, through periodic adjustments within lateral moraines and bedrock. Adjustments of moraines and valley walls is sporadic and appears to be associated with spring thaws and wet storms. This study indicates that dry moraine walls will become metastable and will re-equilibrate back to a lower relief via slope failure when the vertical relief between the moraine crest and glacial ice surface exceeds 129 ± 10 m. Based on this information it is possible to predict when failure will likely occur on certain moraines. /// Le glacier du Tasman et ses tributaires subissent un amaigrissement qui a commen04é dans les années 1880. Jusqu'à une époque relativement récente, la diminution de la masse glaciaire avait peu d'effet sur la topographie des vallées glaciaires, mais depuis le début des années 1960, les moraines latérales et même les versants des vallées du substratum ont commencé à subir une dégradation des pentes. Les signes précurseurs de cette dégradation comprennent des fissures de tension et la formation d'escarpements de faille vers le haut des pentes. La dégradation des pentes évolue ensuite vers des glissements de roches détritiques du substratum, des éboulis et de fréquentes avalanches de roches détritiques. Des chalets-refuges et des sentiers depuis longtemps établis ont été déplacés ou démolis par suite de cette dégradation des pentes. L'apparition de toutes ces dégradations de pentes est directement liée à l'amaigrissement rapide des glaciers des vallées. Il a été estimé que la surface glaciaire du Tasman s'abaisse de 3,5 m ± 0,5 m par an. Cette récession rapide des glaciers 00te le support latéral des versants de vallées qui se rééquilibrent par conséquent via la dégradation des pentes, durant les ajustements périodiques à l'intérieur des moraines et du substratum. L'ajustement des moraines et des versants de vallées est sporadique et semble être associé aux dégels de printemps et aux pluies abondantes. Cette étude indique que les versants secs des moraines deviennent métastables et se rééquilibrent pour aboutir à un relief moins élevé via la dégradation des versants, lorsque le relief vertical entre la crête d'une moraine et la surface glaciaire est supérieure à 129 m ± 10 m. En se basant sur ces données, il est possible de prédire à quel moment le processus de dégradation est susceptible de se produire sur certaines moraines. /// Der Tasmangletscher und seine Nebengletscher sind seit den achtziger Jahren des vorigen Jahrhunderts im Schwinden begriffen. Bis etwa 1960 wirkte sich die Verringerung der Eismasse nur geringfügig auf die Topographie des Gletschertales aus. In den frühen sechziger Jahren begannen jedoch die Seitenmor01nen und sogar der Fels der Talw01nde nachzugeben. Die ersten Anzeichen von Hangbrüchen waren Spannungsrisse und das Auftreten von aufw01rts weisenden Verwerfungsbrüchen. Die Hangdestabilisierung schritt dann sehr schnell fort, und es gab in einem weiten Umkreis Ger02llrutsche an der Felssohle, Felsstürze und h01ufige Schuttlawinen. Berghütten und alte Pfade, die in der ersten H01lfte des 20. Jahrhunderts gebaut worden waren, wurden entweder verlegt oder infolge der Hangeinstürze zerst02rt. Alle Hangbrüche in deisem Gebiet sind eine direkte Folge der rapiden Verringerung der Eismasse des Talgletschers. Sch01tzungen zufolge senkt sich die Oberfl01che des Tasmangletschers im Jahr um 3.5± 0.5 m. Dieser rapide Rückgang des Gletschereises entzieht den Talw01nden die seitliche Stütze, so dass sie sich durch Hangeinsturz, d. h. durch periodische Ausgleichsbewegungen in den Seitenmor01nen und Talw01nden sind sporadisch und scheinen bei Tauwetter im Frühjahr und bei Regeneinbruch aufzutreten. Die vorliegende Studie zeigt, dass die trockenen Mor01nanw01nde im Begriff sind, metastabil zu werden, und dass sie sich durch Hangbruch und Oberfl01chensenkung wieder ins Gleichgewicht bringen werden, sobald der H02henunterschied zwischen dem Mor01nenrücken und der Gletscheroberfl01che 129± 10 m überschreitet. Aufgrund dieser Information kann man vorhersagan, wann die Destabilisierung an bestimmten Mor01nan aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach eintreten wird.
[25] Bollati I, Smiraglia C, Pelfini M.2013.

Assessment and Selection of Geomorphosites and Trails in the Miage Glacier area (Western Italian Alps)

[J]. Environmental Management, 51(4): 951-967.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-012-9995-2      URL      PMID: 23275148      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Glacial environments are considered geomorphosites because they exhibit all of the features that characterise sites of geomorphological interest. The Miage Glacier, in particular, is the most important debris-covered glacier of the Italian Alps, and it has been extensively studied since the 18th century because of its scientific features. In this area, the geomorphological and geological attributes are evaluated at 11 sites that have been individuated along the three main touristic trails, which allow an exploration of the surroundings of the glacial tongue and its two main lobes. Using a methodology previously tested in a fluvial environment, single sites and trails are quantitatively assessed to determine the most suitable trail for educational purposes. Hazards that could potentially affect the trails are considered in terms of both risk education and final selection of the most suitable trails for the various possible user groups. The richness of scientific data in this area should increase its importance as a geomorphosite by increasing the educational value of the Miage Glacier and the Veny Valley.
[26] Bürki R, Elsasser H, Abegg B, et al.2005.

Climate change and tourism in the Swiss Alps

[M]// Hall M, Higham J. Tourism, recreation and climate change. Clevedon, Channel View Publications: 155-163.

[本文引用: 1]     

[27] Bury J T, Mark B G, Mckenzie J M, et al.2011.

Glacier recession and human vulnerability in the Yanamarey Watershed of the Cordillera Blanca, Peru

[J]. Climatic Change, 105(1-2): 179-206.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9870-1      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Glaciers in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, are undergoing rapid retreat, in large part due to climate change. These changes are significantly altering water availability in the region and pose critical risks to local populations that are highly dependent on these resources for livelihoods. We examine these issues through an interdisciplinary and linked evaluation of hydrological change and livelihood vulnerability in the Yanamarey watershed. Physical observations of the Yanamarey glacier show acceleration in frontal retreat at a rate of 802m decade 6561651 since 1970, accompanied by total volume loss on the order of 0.02202km 3 . Hydrological and hydrochemical analyses document a possible transformation of stream flow over the past decade as the seasonal storage capacity of the glacier has degraded. Recent stream discharge measurements from the proglacial lake below the glacier are more coincident with the highly variable seasonal precipitation than they were during the 1998–1999 hydrological year. Local household perceptions of glacier recession and seasonal hydrological variability agree with this trend, which is increasing human vulnerability in the watershed. Household case-study survey results demonstrate that shifting water resources, increasing weather extremes and climate-related threats to tourism are all new vectors of vulnerability for household livelihoods.
[28] Cannone N, Diolaiuti G, Guglielmin M, et al.2008.

Accelerating climate change impacts on alpine glacier forefield ecosystems in the European Alps

[J]. Ecological Applications, 18(3): 637-648.

https://doi.org/10.1890/07-1188.1      URL      PMID: 18488623      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In the European Alps the increase in air temperature was more than twice the increase in global mean temperature over the last 50 years. The abiotic (glacial) and the biotic components (plants and vegetation) of the mountain environment are showing ample evidence of climate change impacts. In the Alps most small glaciers (80% of total glacial coverage and an important contribution to water resources) could disappear in the next decades. Recently climate change was demonstrated to affect higher levels of ecological systems, with vegetation exhibiting surface area changes, indicating that alpine and nival vegetation may be able to respond in a fast and flexible way in response to 1-2 C warming. We analyzed the glacier evolution (terminus fluctuations, mass balances, surface area variations), local climate, and vegetation succession on the forefield of Sforzellina Glacier (Upper Valtellina, central Italian Alps) over the past three decades. We aimed to quantify the impacts of climate change on coupled biotic and abiotic components of high alpine ecosystems, to verify if an acceleration was occurring on them during the last decade (i.e., 1996-2006) and to assess whether new specific strategies were adopted for plant colonization and development. All the glaciological data indicate that a glacial retreat and shrinkage occurred and was much stronger after 2002 than during the last 35 years. Vegetation started to colonize surfaces deglaciated for only one year, with a rate at least four times greater than that reported in the literature for the establishment of scattered individuals and about two times greater for the well-established discontinuous early-successional community. The colonization strategy changed: the first colonizers are early-successional, scree slopes, and perennial clonal species with high phenotypic plasticity rather than pioneer and snowbed species. This impressive acceleration coincided with only slight local summer wanning (approximately +0.5 C) and a poorly documented local decrease in the snow cover depth and duration. Are we facing accelerated ecological responses to climatic changes and/or did we go beyond a threshold over which major ecosystem changes may occur in response to even minor climatic variations?
[29] Capps D M.2017.

The role of glaciers and glacier research in the development of U S national parks

[J]. Earth Sciences History, 36(2): 337-358.

https://doi.org/10.17704/1944-6178-36.2.337      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[30] Corbett R.2001.

Social impact issues among visitors to Franz Josef Glacier, Westland National Park

[R]. Science & Research Internal Report 186. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation.

[本文引用: 3]     

[31] Dhaulakhandi M, Rajwar G S, Kumar M.2010.

Ecological status and impact of disturbance in an alpine pasture of Garhwal Himalaya, India

[J]. Journal of Plant Development, 17(1): 127-137.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The alpine area in Garhwal Himalaya is highly fragile and is known for its beautiful flora and fauna. The study area was located just below the Gangotri glacier which is the origin of Bhagirathi, a holy river of India. Pilgrimage, tourism, adventure activities and mules are the factors responsible for causing disturbance in this area. There is a remarkable variation in the values of diversity, species richness, dominance, density IVI and biomass production at Bhojbasa Protected (BP) and Bhojbasa Disturbed (BD) sites. The value of liveshoot biomass was highest in August (444 g m-2 on BP and 80 g m-2 on BD sites). Belowground biomass was also recorded highest for BP site and lowest for BD site. The ANP value at BP site was 363 g m-2 y-1 and 26 g m-2 y-1 at BD site.This area has shown decrease in diversity and productivity, and heavy soil erosion that indicate the consequence of increasing human activities due to pilgrimage, tourism and camping and frequent movement of mules carrying goods. Therefore, this area requires strict measures for biodiversity conservation and disaster mitigation.
[32] Diolaiuti G, Smiraglia C.2010.

Changing glaciers in a changing climate: How vanishing geomorphosites have been driving deep changes on mountain landscape and environment

[J]. Géomorphologie: Relief, Processus, Environnement, 2: 131-152.

[本文引用: 1]     

[33] Espiner S.2001.

Visitor perception of natural hazards at New Zealand tourism attractions

[J]. Pacific Tourism Review, 4(4): 179-189.

[本文引用: 1]     

[34] Espiner S, Becken S.2014.

Tourist towns on the edge: Conceptualising vulnerability and resilience in a protected area tourism system

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4): 646-665.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.855222      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

The Franz Josef and Fox Glacier townships in New Zealand's “Glacier Country”, neighbouring Westland National Park, are remote tourist attractions facing multiple future sustainability challenges. Despite their distance from their markets, they attract 600,000 visitors annually and are fundamental to the district's economy. However, issues of geographic isolation are compounded by major threats of flooding and earthquake, rising fuel prices and climate change scenarios which imply serious glacier melting. Using 24 stakeholder interviews, this study evaluates susceptibility to change at multiple scales which could undermine the economic and social longevity of this iconic destination. Adopting a human–environment systems perspective, it utilises the concepts of vulnerability and resilience to examine dimensions of change and response that have shaped the community, conservation and tourism in this peripheral region. It finds high levels of vulnerability do not necessarily determine low levels of resilience, nor vice versa. Rather than mutually exclusive, vulnerability and resilience are discrete, but highly compatible concepts, offering much to the analysis of protected area tourism facing global change. The paper notes the potential guidance and governance role of the protected area in building resilience, and equally the threat to the protected area's integrity if tourism is compromised by its vulnerabilities.
[35] Evans S G, Clague J J.1994.

Recent climatic change and catastrophic geomorphic processes in mountain environments

[J]. Geomorphology, 10(3): 107-128.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555X(94)90011-6      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[36] Feuillet T, Sourp E.2011.

Geomorphological heritage of the Pyrenees National Park (France): Assessment, clustering, and promotion of geomorphosites

[J]. Geoheritage, 3(3): 151-162.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12371-010-0020-y      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12371-010-0020-y
[37] Fischer A, Olefs M, Abermann J.2011.

Glaciers, snow and ski tourism in Austria's changing climate

[J]. Annals of Glaciology, 52(58): 89-96.

https://doi.org/10.3189/172756411797252338      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

<div class="abstract" data-abstract-type="normal"> This study illustrates the relevance of cryospheric changes for, and their impact on, ski tourism in Austria. The results of several case studies on snow reliability, snow production and mass balance in glacier ski resorts in the tz and Stubai valleys are summarized. Climate data from Obergurgl (1936ma.s.l.) in the tz valley are analyzed with respect to the amount and duration of natural snow cover and the possibility of snow production. A case study on Mittelbergferner focuses on the impacts of glacial recession on a ski resort and possible adaptation measures. From long-term glacier inventory and short-term mass-balance data, the effect of operating ski resorts on glaciers is investigated. At Obergurgl, the probability of both snow cover and snow production is >80% from December to March and decreases significantly in the months before and after this peak season. The interannual variability of snow cover and production is low during the main season and higher in other months. Year-to-year differences are larger than any long-term trend. Glacier ski resorts must adapt to shrinking glacial area and falling glacier surface. Covering the glacier with textiles reduces ablation by 60% and results in significantly less volume loss than on uncovered parts of the glacier. Neither the mass-balance comparison between groomed and ungroomed areas nor the comparison of long-term volume changes between 10 ski resort glaciers and 100 surrounding glaciers showed evidence for an impact of the operation of ski resorts on the glaciers.
[38] Frey H, Haeberli W, Linsbauer A, et al.2010.

A multi-level strategy for anticipating future glacier lake formation and associated hazard potentials

[J]. Natural Hazards & Earth System Sciences, 10(2): 339-352.

https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-339-2010      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

In the course of glacier retreat, new glacier lakes can develop. As such lakes can be a source of natural hazards, strategies for predicting future glacier lake formation are important for an early planning of safety measures. In this article, a multi-level strategy for the identification of overdeepened parts of the glacier beds and, hence, sites with potential future lake formation, is presented. At the first two of the four levels of this strategy, glacier bed overdeepenings are estimated qualitatively and over large regions based on a digital elevation model (DEM) and digital glacier outlines. On level 3, more detailed and laborious models are applied for modeling the glacier bed topography over smaller regions; and on level 4, special situations must be investigated in-situ with detailed measurements such as geophysical soundings. The approaches of the strategy are validated using historical data from Trift Glacier, where a lake formed over the past decade. Scenarios of future glacier lakes are shown for the two test regions Aletsch and Bernina in the Swiss Alps. In the Bernina region, potential future lake outbursts are modeled, using a GIS-based hydrological flow routing model. As shown by a corresponding test, the ASTER GDEM and the SRTM DEM are both suitable to be used within the proposed strategy. Application of this strategy in other mountain regions of the world is therefore possible as well.
[39] Frömming U U.2009.

Kilimanjaro's melting glaciers: On the colonial and postcolonial perception and appropriation of African nature

[J]. Etnográfica, 13(2): 395-416.

[本文引用: 2]     

[40] Furunes T, Mykletun R J.2012.

Frozen adventure at risk? A 7-year follow-up study of Norwegian glacier tourism

[J].Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 12(4): 324-348.

https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2012.748507      URL      [本文引用: 9]      摘要

This article aims at illuminating the contemporary glacier tourism scene, and does so by showing how glacier tourism in Norway has developed as an adventure tourism activity over the past 7 years. In total, 17 companies offered guided glacier activities for approximately 20 30,000 visitors per year. Data were collected by repeated interviews, website studies, and participant observation. The product variety covers guided day tours, longer guided tours, and glacier instructor courses. There has been product development from traditional glacier surface walks and activities in the glacier-arm area as well as glacier lake kayaking, terminal face walks, and ice climbing. Glacier tourism can be seen as a mix between purchasable short-term holidays and gradually acquired life-time skill. This analysis focuses on five important preconditions for this adventure tourism niche, namely, natural resources, access, demand, entrepreneurship, and need for special competence. The study also provides insight into current and future challenges and perceived risks on three levels. Results indicate that glacier tourism is not dependent on large glaciers. Studying current companies' location shows there is room for expansion in terms of extensively using natural resources where there is demand. However, some entrepreneurs are sceptical of the industry's future as recent recession of the glaciers has made access more difficult.
[41] Garavaglia V, Diolaiuti G, Smiraglia C, et al.2012.

Evaluating tourist perception of environmental changes as a contribution to managing natural resources in glacierized areas: A case study of the Forni Glacier (Stelvio National Park, Italian Alps)

[J]. Environmental Management, 50(6): 1125-1138.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-012-9948-9      URL      PMID: 23052477      [本文引用: 7]      摘要

AbstractClimate change effects are noticeably evident above the timberline where glacier and permafrost processes and mass movements drive the surface evolution. In particular, the cryosphere shrinkage is deeply changing the features and characteristics of several glacierized mountain areas of the world, and these modifications can also affect the landscape perception of tourists and mountaineers. On the one hand glacier retreat is increasing the interest of tourists and visitors in areas witnessing clear climate change impacts; on the other hand cryosphere shrinkage can impact the touristic appeal of mountain territories which, diminishing their ice and snow coverage, are also losing part of their aesthetic value. Then, to promote glacierized areas in a changing climate and to prepare exhaustive and actual proposals for sustainable tourism, it is important to deepen our knowledge about landscape perception of tourists and mountaineers and their awareness of the ongoing environmental modifications. Here we present the results from a pilot study we performed in summer 2009 on a representative glacierized area of the Alps, the Forni Valley (Stelvio National Park, Lombardy, Italy), a valley shaped by Forni, the largest Italian valley glacier. During the 2009 summer season we asked tourists visiting the Forni Valley to complete a questionnaire. This study was aimed at both describing the features and characteristics of tourists and mountaineers visiting this Alpine zone in summer and evaluating their landscape perception and their ability to recognize climate change impacts and evidence. Our results suggest that the dissemination strategies in a natural protected area have to take into account not only the main landscape features but also the sites where the information will be given. In particular considering the peculiarities of the huts located in the area, such as their different accessibility and the fact that they are included or not in a mountaineering network like that of the Italian Alpine Club. Both these factors can influence the kind of visitors to the area, thus requiring different dissemination strategies. Moreover, differences in the viewpoints from where visitors could watch and understand landscape also have to be considered. Next, in a protected area where climate change effects are evident, the dissemination strategies should be developed in close cooperation with scientists who are analyzing the area and with the support of periodic interviews which could be very useful to evaluate the effectiveness of the applied dissemination methods. Last but not least, the questionnaire should be standardized and distributed in several protected areas, thus permitting useful comparisons and the identification of common solutions for sharing in a friendly way scientific knowledge about climate change and its effects on the environment and the landscape.
[42] Goodwin K, Loso M G, Braun M.2012.

Glacial transport of human waste and survival of fecal bacteria on Mt. McKinley's Kahiltna Glacier, Denali National Park, Alaska

[J]. Arctic, Antarctic & Alpine Research, 44(4): 432-445.

[本文引用: 1]     

[43] Haeberli W, Beniston M.1998.

Climate change and its impacts on glaciers and permafrost in the Alps

[J]. AMBIO, 27(4): 258-265.

[本文引用: 1]     

[44] Haeberli W, Kääb A, Vonder Mühll D, et al.2001.

Prevention of outburst floods from periglacial lakes at Grubengletscher, Valais, Swiss Alps

[J]. Journal of Glaciology, 47: 111-122.

https://doi.org/10.3189/172756501781832575      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[45] Haimayer P.1989.

Glacier-Skiing Areas in Austria: A socio-political perspective

[J]. Mountain Research & Development, 9(1): 51-58.

https://doi.org/10.2307/3673464      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In large areas of the Austrian mountain region tourism represents the only economic alternative to alpine farming, and for decades its development has been promoted. There has been a great expansion of winter sports facilities and especially the development of mass skiing on glaciers. Opinions on glacier-skiing areas have differed widely right from the start, and the supporters as well as the opponents have put forward ecological, economic, and social arguments. The supporters comprise mainly inhabitants of the mountain communities involved; the opponents live primarily in urban areas. This paper aims to present the perspective of the locals, that is, of the population groups that are immediately affected. Their evaluation of glacier-skiing is predominantly positive although they have increasingly developed an objective, critical view. This enables them to take advantage of the favourable effects of such large-scale tourist projects while, at the same time, avoiding the negative ones. /// Dans beaucoup de régions des Alpes autrichiennes, le tourisme représente la seule alternative économique à l'agriculture de montagne. En conséquence l'aménagement touristique y est encouragé depuis des décennies. L'expansion du ski alpin et l'équipement des glaciers pour le ski de masse jouent dans ce sens un r00le particulier. Les opinions concernant les domaines de ski sur glacier étaient cependant, au début, très partagées. De la part de leurs partisans comme de leurs adversaires des arguments d'ordre écologique, économique et social alimentaient la controverse. Parmi les personnes favorables viennent tout d'abord les habitants de la montagne tandis que les adversaires se recrutent essentiellement dans les régions urbaines. Nous exposerons ici le point de vue et les perspectives de la population locale, c'est à dire de ceux qui sont directement concernés. En général ce groupe a une appréciation très positive à l'égard du ski sur glacier, sur lequel il fonde de grands espoirs économiques. Cependant on voit de plus en plus s'élever des opinions critiques parmi les montagnards eux-mêmes, ce qui devrait leur permettre de mieux profiter des effets bénéfiques des grands projets d'équipement touristiques et de mieux se protéger contre les effets négatifs. /// In weiten Teilen des 02sterreichischen Alpenraumes bildet der Tourismus die einzige 02konomische Alternative zur Berglandwirtschaft. Sein Ausbau wird daher seit Jahrzehnten forciert. Die Ausweitung des Schisports und die Erschlie08ung der Gletscher für den Massenschilauf spielen dabei eine besondere Rolle. Die Meinungen über die Gletscherschigebiete waren jedoch von Anfang an geteilt, und es wurden sowohl von den Befürwortern als auch von den Gegnern 02kologische, 02konomische und soziale Argumente ins Treffen geführt. Zu den Befürwortern z01hlen in erster Linie die Bewohner der Berggebiete, w01hrend die Gegner vor allem in den st01dtischen R01umen zu finden sind. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird versucht, die Perspektive der Einheimischen, d.h. der unmittelbar betroffenen Bev02lkerung darzustellen. Diese Bev02lkerungsgruppe bewertet die Gletscherschigebiete im allgemeinen sehr positiv und sie verbindet mit ihnen hohe 02konomische Erwartungen. Sie entwickelt jedoch in zunehmendem Ma08e eine objektiv-kritische Sicht: Das versetzt sie in die Lage, die günstigen Wirkungen solcher touristischer Gro08projekte in Hinkunft besser zu nutzen und die negativen Effekte st01rker zurückzudr01ngen.
[46] Hoover-Miller A, Bishop A, Prewitt J, et al.2013.

Efficacy of voluntary mitigation in reducing harbor seal disturbance

[J]. Journal of Wildlife Management, 77(4): 689-700.

https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.510      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Marine and coastal tourism has rapidly expanded worldwide in the past 2 decades, often occurring in once secluded habitats. In Alaska, tourism near tidewater glaciers has attracted millions of visitors and increased the presence of ships, tour vessels, and coastal development. Although sustainable tourism, resulting from balanced effects on wildlife and client satisfaction, is a goal of most tourism operators, it is not always achieved. Voluntary compliance with viewing guidelines and codes of conduct have been encouraged, but few assessments have the longitudinal scope to evaluate long-term changes in impacts on wildlife and the ability of vessel operators and kayak guides to sustain lower impact operating practices over time. This study assessed vessel and kayak visitation and resulting impacts on harbor seals in the Kenai Fjords National Park, southcentral Alaska. We obtained observations from 2002 to 2011, using remotely controlled video cameras located near Aialik and Pedersen Glaciers in the Kenai Fjords National Park. Overall, disturbance was associated with 5.1% of vessel sightings, 28% of vessel interactions (vessel observed within approx. 300m of seals), 11.5% of kayak sightings, and 61% of kayak interactions. Results demonstrated that voluntary changes in operations significantly reduced vessel and kayak disturbance of seals by 6080%. Even with prior establishment of operating guidelines, tour vessel captains were able to further reduce their effect on wildlife with more careful operations. Rapid growth of guided kayak excursions that occurred during this study caused greater disturbance to seals than motorized vessels but guide trainings helped reduce disturbances. Diminished impacts of motor vessels and kayakers persisted across years although effects of kayaks were less consistent than motor vessels, which reflected greater variability in inter-annual spatial use patterns by kayakers. Long-term monitoring, including assessments of wildlife responses to vessel and kayak operations, combined with 2-way communication with vessel operators and guides, enhanced the effectiveness of mitigation and facilitated adaptive adjustments to mitigation protocols over time. (c) 2013 The Wildlife Society.
[47] Huggel C, Haeberli W, Kääb A, et al.2004.

An assessment procedure for glacial hazards in the Swiss Alps

[J]. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 41(6): 1068-1083.

https://doi.org/10.1139/t04-053      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[48] Iwata S, Watanabe T.2007.

A proposal on glacier tourism of Pasu Glacier Group, Gojal, Northern Pakistan

[J]. Rikkyo University Bulletin of Studies in Tourism, 9: 11-26.

[本文引用: 1]     

[49] Jóhannesdóttir G R.2010.

Landscape and Aesthetic values: Not only in the eye of the beholder

[M]// Benediktsson K, Lund K A. Conservations with landscape. Farnham: Ashgate: 109-124.

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[50] Kaseva M E, Moirana J L.2009.

Problems of solid waste management on Mount Kilimanjaro: A challenge to tourism

[J]. Waste Management and Research, 28(8): 695-704.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09337655      URL      PMID: 19723827      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

We report on the findings of a study on the problems of solid waste management (SWM) on Mountain Kilimanjaro (MK) which is located within Kilimanjaro National Park (KINAPA) in Northern Tanzania. The study was prompted by the fact that flourishing tourism on the mountain over the years has resulted in an increase in the tonnage of solid waste (SW) generated, posing serious challenges in its collection and disposal. The methodology employed in this study included physical observations and questionnaire surveys, as well as waste sorting and weighing to quantify and characterize waste loads collected from each tourist route station covered in this study. On the basis of the established SW generation rate (0.6 kg ca(-1) day(-1)) a total amount of SW generated was estimated to range from about 87 tones (in 2003) to 125 tones (in 2006). An improvement in SW collection from 64% in 2003 to 94% in 2006 was also noted. This improvement can be attributed to the trash-in-trash-out (TITO) system of SW collection which is currently practiced by the management of KINAPA for SWM on MK. The study also highlights potential environmental pollution including air pollution from open burning and pit disposal of SW. Based on average percentage values of waste components and the estimated quantity of waste generated, it was established that the total waste quantum contains about 34% of recyclables. The study recommends that resource recovery and conservation measures through waste recycling and re-use be instituted as one of the options for sustainable SWM on MK.
[51] Koenig U, Abegg B.1997.

Impacts of climate change on winter tourism in the Swiss Alps

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5(1): 46-58.

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[52] Kohler J. 2019.

How close should boats come to the fronts of Svalbard's calving glaciers?

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[53] Kuniyal J C.2002.

Mountain expeditions: Minimising the impact

[J]. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 22(6): 561-581.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-9255(02)00031-8      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Mountains of the world are the prime sources of glaciers and scenic beauty. However, for the last two decades biotic pressure due to expeditions, trekking, tourism and transhumance practices by the shepherds is continuously increasing in these areas. Practices like indiscriminate throwing of wastes, leaving behind self generated wastes and emission of poisonous gases from unattended wastes, cutting of trees like Rhododendron spp. (for fuelwood), introduction of hybrid sheep to replace indigenous ones, extraction of invaluable and endangered medicinal plants, reduction in wildlife because of illegal hunting and poaching (for meat, skin and medicine) adversely affect the expedition areas. The study conducted in one of the expeditions to the Pindari Valley of Indian Himalayas shows that 60.68% nonbiodegradable waste problem can be resolved by reuse (39.34%) and recycling (21.34%). But all the wastes need to be brought back by the visitors from expedition/trekking areas to the road heads for easy transportation to places where it can be re-used, recycled or new products discovered with innovative recovery initiatives. Also, public involvement in minimising the adverse eco-impacts is a must. Under such high biotic pressure, problem of solid waste, high melting rate of glaciers, a rational use of scarce local resources is urgently needed.
[54] Liu T M.2016.

The influence of climate change on tourism demand in Taiwan national parks

[J]. Tourism Management Perspectives, 20: 269-275.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2016.10.006      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

61The study examines how weather affects Taiwan national park visitation.61Rainfall has a more significant influence on the visitation than temperature.61The macroeconomic environment also has a clear influence on the visitation.61Macroeconomic fluctuations can be used to mitigate weather effects on the visitation.
[55] Liu X L, Yang Z, Xie T.2006.

Development and conservation of glacier tourist resources: A case study of Bogda Glacier Park

[J]. Chinese Geographical Science, 16(4): 365-370.

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[56] Lund K A.2013.

Experiencing nature in nature-based tourism

[J]. Tourist Studies, 13(2): 156-171.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1468797613490373      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article aims to situate nature, not as an organised and mapped space but rather in the way in which it is lived and experienced. Given the fact that most tourists who come to Iceland claim the reason for their visit to be the natural landscapes of Iceland, tourism in Iceland has focused on so-called nature-based tourism. This is not new because eighteenth-century to early twentieth-century travellers and explorers were affected by the sublimity of the landscapes they encountered and, hence, have had their influences in shaping the meaning of the contemporary, institutional definitions of natural landscapes. These are definitions that leave out the lived experience and also deny nature its vitality and movement. As Tim Ingold has argued, nature as it is experienced is an animated being, and as such, one enters into the atmosphere of vibrant surroundings that one engages with. In order to situate nature, I travel to Sn fellsj kull National Park in Iceland.
[57] Mahagaonkar A, Wangchuk S, Ramanathan A L, et al.2017.

Glacier environment and climate change in Bhutan: An overview

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[58] Marcella T K, Gende S M, Roby D D, et al.2017.

Disturbance of a rare seabird by ship-based tourism in a marine protected area

[J]. PLoS ONE, 12(5): 1-23.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176176      URL      PMID: 5425178      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Managers of marine protected areas (MPAs) must often seek ways to allow for visitation while minimizing impacts to the resources they are intended to protect. Using shipboard observers, we quantified the “zone of disturbance” for Kittlitz’s and marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus brevirostrisandB.marmoratus) exposed to large cruise ships traveling through Glacier Bay National Park, one of the largest MPAs in North America. In the upper reaches of Glacier Bay, where Kittlitz’s murrelets predominated, binary logistic regression models predicted that 61% of all murrelets within 850 m perpendicular distance of a cruise ship were disturbed (defined as flushing or diving), whereas in the lower reaches, where marbled murrelets predominated, this percentage increased to 72%. Using survival analysis, murrelets in both reaches were found to react at greater distances when ships approached indirectly, presumably because of the ship’s larger profile, suggesting murrelets responded to visual rather than audio cues. No management-relevant covariates (e.g., ship velocity, route distance from shore) were found to be important predictors of disturbance, as distance from ship to murrelet accounted for > 90% of the explained variation in murrelet response. Utilizing previously published murrelet density estimates from Glacier Bay, and applying an average empirical disturbance probability (68%) out to 850 m from a cruise ship’s typical route, we estimated that a minimum of 9.8–19.6% of all murrelets in Glacier Bay are disturbed per ship entry. Whether these disturbance levels are inconsistent with Park management objectives, which include conserving wildlife as well as providing opportunities for visitation, depends in large part on whether disturbance events caused by cruise ships have impacts on murrelet fitness, which remains uncertain.
[59] Mccormack T.1999.

Glacier advance: The development of tourism at Franz Josef Glacier, 1865-1965

[D]. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago.

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[60] Moreau M.2010.

Visual perception of changes in a high mountain landscape: The case of the retreat of the Évettes Glacier (Haute-Maurienne, northern French Alps)

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[61] Nepal S K.2011.

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[62] Ning B Y, He Y Q, Li Z X.2013.

Analysis on residents'perceptions and attitudes toward glacier tourism: A case study in Lijiang

[C]// Proceedings of 2013 3rd international conference on applied social science. Taibei, China: Information Engineering Research institute: 42-49.

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[63] Olafsdottir G.2013.

'..Sometimes you've just got to get away': On trekking holidays and their therapeutic effect

[J]. Tourist Studies, 13(2): 209-231.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1468797613490379      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

http://tou.sagepub.com/content/13/2/209.full.pdf+html
[64] Pralong J P, Reynard E.2005.

A proposal for a classification of geomorphological sites depending on their tourist value

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[65] Purdie H.2013.

Glacier retreat and tourism: Insights from New Zealand

[J]. Mountain Research & Development, 33(4): 463-472.

https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-12-00073.1      URL      [本文引用: 9]      摘要

Glacier tourism, a multimillion-dollar industry in New Zealand, is potentially under threat by ongoing glacial retreat. Surface morphology changes associated with retreat and thinning result in increasingly difficult access for guided walks on the Franz Josef Glacier, but simultaneously, an enlarging proglacial lake is increasing tourism opportunities at Tasman Glacier. Steepening ice slopes, increased debris cover, and an increase in the rockfall hazard are just some of the challenges glacier tourism operators face as glaciers around the world retreat. To date in New Zealand, glacier tourism has kept pace with ongoing glaciological change, often by increasing mechanized access. Focusing scientific research on short-term process studies—for example, determining thinning rates and assessing hazards—will help tour operators and policy-makers make decisions about future glacier utilization and accessibility.
[66] Purdie H, Gomez C, Espiner S.2015.

Glacier recession and the changing rockfall hazard: Implications for glacier tourism

[J]. New Zealand Geographer, 71(3): 189-202.

https://doi.org/10.1111/nzg.12091      URL      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

Rapid recession and thinning of mountain glaciers worldwide are resulting in changes to glacier surface morphology, which are exacerbated by increased rockfall and debris accumulation at lateral margins. Rockfall can be a hazard to people visiting and working on glaciers. Relationships between rockfall and the changing glacier surface were explored at Fox Glacier, where tourism is a key industr...
[67] Ritter F, Fiebig M, Muhar A.2012.

Impacts of global warming on mountaineering: A classification of phenomena affecting the Alpine trail network

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[68] Scott D, Jones B, Konopek J.2007.

Implications of climate and environmental change for nature-based tourism in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A case study of Waterton Lakes National Park

[J]. Tourism Management, 28(2): 570-579.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.020      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In western North America, Rocky Mountain national parks represent a major resource for nature-based tourism. This paper examines how climate change may influence park tourism in the Rocky Mountain region by focusing on both the direct and indirect impacts of climate change for visitation to Waterton Lakes National Park (WLNP) (Alberta, Canada). A statistical model of monthly visitation and climate was developed to examine the direct impact of climate change on visitation. The model projected that annual visitation would increase between 6% and 10% in the 2020s and between 10% and 36% in the 2050s. To explore how climate-induced environmental change could also indirectly affect visitation, a visitor survey was used (=425). The environmental change scenarios for the 2020s and 2050s were found to have minimal influence on visitation, however the environmental change scenario for the 2080s (under the warmest climate change conditions) was found to have a negative effect on visitation, as 19% of respondents indicated they would not visit the park and 37% stated they would visit the park less often. The contrasting result of the two analyses for the longer-term impact of climate change was a key finding. The management implications of these findings and methodological challenges associate with climate change impact assessment for tourism are also discussed.
[69] Smiraglia C, Diolaiuti G, Pelfini M, et al.2008. Glacier changes and their impacts on mountain tourism [M]// Orlove B, Wiegandt E, Luckman B. Darkening Peaks, glacier retreat, science and society. Los Angeles: University of California Press: 206-215.

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[70] Stewart E J, Welling J T, Espiner S, et al.2017.

Comparing motives of glacier tourists to Westland Tai Poutini National Park, New Zealand and Vatnajokull National Park, Iceland

[M]// Lee C, Filep S, Albrecht J N, et al. CAUTHE 2017: Time for big ideas? Re-thinking the field for tomorrow. Dunedin, New Zealand: Department of Tourism, University of Otago: 592-597.

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[71] Stewart E J, Wilson J, Espiner S, et al.2016.

Implications of climate change for glacier tourism

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 18(4): 1-22.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2015.1116599      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14616688.2015.1116599
[72] Wang S J, Jiao S T.2012.

Adaptation models of mountain glacier tourism to climate change: A case study of Mt. Yulong Snow scenic area

[J]. Science in Cold and Arid Regions, 4(5): 401-407.

https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1226.2012.00401      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[73] Welling J T, Árnason Þ, Ólafsdottír R.2015.

Glacier tourism: A scoping review

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 17(5): 635-662.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2015.1084529      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

Many glaciers worldwide have become popular tourist destinations where a broad range of outdoor recreation- or adventure-based activities, such as glacier hiking, ice climbing or snowmobiling, can be conducted. Despite the growing popularity of glaciers as tourist destinations, up to now only very limited research has been undertaken into this form of tourism. The purpose of this paper is to systematically assess the nature and scope of research into glacier tourism in academic literature and to identify gaps in knowledge in this relatively new field of research. A scoping literature review was conducted of English language academic literature including peer-reviewed articles, reports and academic book chapters, in order to synthesize what is currently known about glacier tourism. From the initially identified 166 sources, 53 sources were ultimately included for review. The greater part of the reviewed literature consists of descriptive empirical studies. The review identified three central themes: perceptions and values of glaciers; the effects of glacier tourism on the social and ecological environment in which it takes place; and climate change and variability. The majority of reviewed studies address the last theme (n= 25). Research on glacier tourism is limited but growing. It deals with a broad scope of topics and addresses glacier tourism in a variety of ways. The literature review demonstrates the need for additional research into several issues, including: (1) designing a coherent conceptual framework that incorporates the main elements of glacier tourism; (2) examining the motives, preferences, experiences and behaviours of glacier tourists, as well as of the motivational push and pull factors of glacier tourism; and (3) conducting cross-area or sub-sector comparative analyses of existing or potential climate-induced impacts on glacier tourism or adaptation strategies and measures. The present study provides a basis for further research in a young and growing research field.
[74] Wilson J.2012.

The impact of climate variability on tourism businesses and tourism infrastructure providers in glacier country

[R]. Land Environment and People Research Paper No. 4. Canterbury, New Zealand: Lincoln University.

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[75] Wilson J, Stewart E J, Espiner S.et al.2014a.

Last chance tourism at the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers, Westland Tai Poutini National Park: A survey of visitor experience

[R]. Canterbury, New Zealand: Lincoln University.

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[76] Wilson J, Stewart E J, Espiner S.et al.2014b.

Last chance tourism at the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers, Westland Tai Poutini National Park: Stakeholder perspectives

[R]. Canterbury, New Zealand: Lincoln University.

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[77] Yuan L L, Lu A G, Ning B Y, et al.2006.

Impacts of Yulong Mountain Glacier on tourism in Lijiang

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