孙晓东
, 侯雅婷
华东师范大学工商管理学院,上海 200241
SUN Xiaodong, HOU Yating
收稿日期: 2016-09-20
网络出版日期: 2017-05-20
版权声明: 2017 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：孙晓东(1979-),男,山东安丘人,博士,副教授,硕士生导师,主要研究方向为邮轮旅游、旅游管理与决策分析,E-mail:xdsun@bs.ecnu.edu.cn。
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摘要
邮轮产业已经成为国际旅游和接待业中发展速度最快、经济效益最显著的业务之一。随着全球邮轮市场的东移,中国邮轮业受到了前所未有的关注,已发展成为亚太邮轮市场的核心组成部分。随着邮轮经济的不断深化,邮轮旅游业对中国经济、社会、文化和环境的影响日渐广泛而深远,而邮轮旅游的可持续性与责任性问题将成为该产业发展的重大议题。本文对国内外文献进行整理和分析后发现,目前国内学者对邮轮旅游及其影响的审视还不够深刻,特别是对邮轮旅游业的负效应或负外部性问题没有引起足够关注,研究成果非常有限,研究视角也较为宽泛。本文主要对近15年来国外邮轮旅游可持续性与责任性方面的成果进行了综述,在对邮轮经济的有限性、邮轮旅游对自然环境破坏和社会—文化冲击等方面的成果进行梳理的基础上,提出了“负责任邮轮旅游”的系统结构与行动框架,可为中国今后邮轮旅游业持续、快速与健康发展提供理论指导与实践支持。
关键词：
Abstract
In recent years, the cruise industry has become one of the most dynamic, rapidly developing and profitable segments in the global tourism and hospitality industry, with millions of passengers each year. China has become one of the most attractive emerging markets in the Asia-Pacific region. Cruise tourism has significant economic impacts on port cities and relevant tourism regions, outputting remarkable employment opportunities and total revenue. However, the development of the cruising sector also brings negative economic, environmental, and social and cultural impacts on cruise destinations and local communities. With the fast development of the Chinese cruise industry, influences of cruise tourism will become far-reaching. It is critical for the Chinese cruise industry to better understand impacts of cruise tourism, particularly the negative side. However, this issue is neglected by the Chinese academic community. Using a sustainable and responsible tourism lens, the purpose of the current article is to systematically examine the negative impacts of cruise tourism by comprehensively reviewing international studies in relation to externalities of cruise tourism. Accordingly, a model or framework of responsible cruise tourism, consisting of governments, non-profit organizations, local communities, cruise passengers, and the cruise industry, is proposed. This article is an attempt to stimulate more attentions from Chinese researchers to the sustainability and responsibility of cruise tourism.
Keywords：
邮轮(Cruise Ship) 原是指海洋上定线、定期航行的大型货运或客运轮船(Ocean Liner),早期主要负责运载两地间的邮件及包裹,通常被称为皇家邮政轮船(Royal Mail Streamship, RMS)。现代邮轮业仍然沿用“邮轮”而非“游轮”的名称来纪念当时的邮政事业(孙晓东等, 2012)。邮轮旅游业最早可追溯到19世纪40年代 (Sun et al, 2011),并在19世纪中后期获得了较快发展,开始出现以钢质结构、电力照明和关注乘客舒适性为特点的邮轮船舶。两次世界大战期间,邮轮业经历了短暂的停滞不前阶段,于“二战”之后获得蓬勃发展。20世纪60年代开始,随着航空运输业的崛起,原本意义上作为客运或邮政运输的邮轮渐渐退出了历史舞台,取而代之的是纯粹用于休闲、旅游、度假功能的豪华邮轮(孙晓东等, 2012)。经历了40余年快速发展,邮轮旅游业已经成为全球旅游与接待业中最具成长性、经济效益最可观的业务之一(Teye et al, 1998; Marti, 2004; Toh et al, 2005; Sun et al, 2011)。1990-2015年邮轮乘客数量以年均7%以上的速度增长,2015年达到2300余万人(CLIA, 2016)。邮轮经济的辐射范围广泛,涵盖运输、航运、海洋、港口和旅游等经济形态。2015年,全球邮轮业的总产出接近1200亿美元(CLIA, 2016),整体经济效益显著,成为推动港口经济发展、沿海城市转型与区域经济合作的新动力(孙晓东等, 2012)。
然而,作为资源依赖型很强的产业,邮轮业大发展一方面带来了大量的社会经济机会,另一方面会产生若干负面效应(Negative Impacts),包括会对气候、空气质量、海洋生态、游客、船员以及当地社区带来不利的影响,造成海洋污染、环境恶化、资源挤压、物价上涨、经济漏损、文化冲击等问题。特别是对于特定的邮轮目的地来说,有限时间内大量邮轮乘客的不断涌入会加重大众化邮轮旅游(Mass Cruise)带来的问题,给邮轮旅游的可持续发展带来巨大的挑战。随着船舶大型化趋势下的全球扩张和快速增长,邮轮旅游高强度污染、新规模和新维度下的大众旅游特征越发明显(Carić, 2016)。因此,如何降低邮轮旅游的负效应、打造一个可持续和负责任的产业形态是全球邮轮业面临的共同难题。目前关于邮轮旅游负效应及责任性问题,国际学者已经从资源与文化、乘客安全、道德、犯罪、劳动权利等方面进行了大量的讨论(Carić, 2016) 。
近年来,国际邮轮业加快了向亚太地区“东移”的步伐。中国邮轮业经历了10年左右的快速发展,已成为亚洲邮轮产业的核心成员和国际邮轮公司竞相争夺的战略性新兴市场(CINQ, 2012; Rodrigue et al, 2013; Sun et al, 2014)。随着邮轮经济的不断深化,邮轮旅游将对中国经济、社会、文化和环境产生广泛而深远的影响。邮轮旅游的可持续性与责任性问题将成为其发展过程中不可回避的重大议题。中国邮轮业在备受关注并飞速发展的同时,必须清醒地认识到邮轮经济背后的负外部性问题,正确处理邮轮经济发展与环境资源保护、社会文化传承、游客居民协调互动之间的关系,及时规避邮轮旅游的负面影响,从而降低产业发展的后续风险。可以说,只有在责任性与可持续性框架下合理、适度而循序渐进地推进邮轮产业,才能保证邮轮经济的健康发展。为了让更多研究者与从业者关注邮轮旅游发展可能带来的负效应问题,做到防患于未然,本文从文献分析的视角对邮轮旅游的负效应、可持续性和责任性问题进行了探讨。首先,对国内外相关研究进行了梳理与总结;其次,提出了一个由利益相关者构成的“负责任邮轮旅游”(Responsible Cruise Tourism)的系统框架,并对不同参与主体的作用进行了分析。希望本文能够引起更多经济学、管理学、社会学、人类学、心理学、地理学、环境学和生态学等相关领域研究者的关注,以更专业的眼光和更敏锐的视角对中国邮轮旅游业的责任性与可持续性问题进行审视,从而能有效规避邮轮旅游活动对经济、社会、文化和环境产生的负面效应,将邮轮旅游业打造成一个负责任的产业。
在国内一般邮轮旅游研究文献收集方面,首先以 “邮轮”或“邮轮旅游”为关键词,以中国科学引文数据库(CSCD)和中文社会科学引文索引(CSSCI)列选期刊为期刊源,对中国知网和万方学术期刊两大主流中文数据库进行检索(截至2016年),共获得23篇学术论文,其中19篇发表于2010年之后,说明国内邮轮旅游研究起步较晚,论文总量较少。在研究综述方面,张言庆等(2012)对境外邮轮旅游的市场研究现状进行了回顾;孙晓东等(2012)则分别从宏观和微观两个层面对国内邮轮产业的研究成果进行了总结。随着中国邮轮产业的迅速崛起,邮轮旅游研究开始进入相对繁荣期,研究内容进一步具体和细化,涉及邮轮旅游的需求预测(贾鹏等, 2013)、邮轮舱位分配(孙晓东等, 2013b)、邮轮舱位定价(孙晓东等, 2013a; 傅方圆等, 2016)、邮轮航线规划(孙晓东等, 2015a)、邮轮市场季节性特征(孙晓东等, 2015b)、邮轮旅游网络关注度特征(李霞等, 2016)、邮轮城市和港口竞争力评价(蔡晓霞等, 2010; 吴慧等, 2015)以及邮轮法律事务(司玉琢等, 2013; 吕方园等, 2014; 郭萍, 2016)等。
在国内邮轮旅游负效应或责任性文献收集方面,本文分别以“邮轮+影响”、“邮轮+环境”、“邮轮+污染”、“邮轮+社区”、“邮轮+社会”、“邮轮+居民”、“邮轮+文化”、“邮轮+可持续”、“邮轮+责任”、“邮轮+员工”、“邮轮+冲突”等为关键词,对CSSCI和CSCD期刊进行检索,仅检索到1篇发表于CSCD期刊的论文。由于文献太少,放宽期刊源后共检索到直接与邮轮旅游负效应、可持续性或责任性相关的文献11篇;剔除若干页数较少(少于4页)且讨论浅显的文献,最终用于分析的论文共6篇,均发表于2010年之后(特别是近2年)。从中文文献来看,虽然近几年邮轮旅游的相关研究增长迅速,但少有文献涉及邮轮旅游对经济、社会、文化和环境等方面的影响,特别是负面影响和可持续性或责任性方面的研究更少。目前,仅有纪洁(2015)基于利益相关者理论,以邮轮公司为主体,较为全面地探讨了邮轮旅游可能存在的负面影响,对邮轮旅游可持续发展具有一定的启示作用。
从研究内容来看,大多数文献关注了邮轮旅游的环境影响。比如,谢芳等(2010)基于生命周期理论探讨了邮轮设施建造、设施运营、运输配送、消费利用和废物处置等过程对环境的影响作用,并提出环境污染管控的基本思路。杜譞等(2016)探讨了德国汉堡邮轮码头绿色岸电在工程设计、法规政策、融资途径、社会参与等方面的经验,对中国邮轮港口岸电项目的实施具有一定的启示作用。王珏等(2015)则从循环经济视角下探讨了邮轮旅游业在微观、中观与宏观方面的环境污染管控问题,但缺少落地的案例研究。在邮轮旅游社会文化影响方面,现有研究主要对邮轮运输安全或港口应急疏散等问题进行了讨论。其中,栾晨焕(2016)对邮轮运输中的突发事件类型和特征进行了分析,并进一步从应对方法以及法制承接方面探讨了邮轮应急体系的构建问题。汪军等(2012)则从邮轮码头应急疏散的角度,构建了人员逃生的元胞自动机机模型, 对紧急情况下的人员疏散情况进行了仿真模拟,并从疏散口数量、疏散口宽度、疏散线路和疏散管理等方面提出了优化策略。事实上,邮轮旅游的社会影响还涉及到对目的地文化、遗产、社区、居民、员工、乘客、甚至其他游客等方面的影响,然而目前国内并无相关研究成果。
在国外文献收集方面,本文对ScienceDirect、EBSCO、Taylor & Francis Online、Wiley Online Library、ProQuest、SAGE Social Science & Humanities Package和SpringerLink Journals等7大数据库进行检索,其中检索关键词包括“Cruise + Environment”、“Cruise + Polluting or Pollution”、“Cruise + Community”、“Cruise + Society or Social”、“Cruise + Resident”、“Cruise + Culture or Cultural”、“Cruise + Sustainable or Sustainability”、 “Cruise + Responsible or Responsibility”、“Cruise + Crew or Worker”、“Cruise + Conflict or Clash”和“Cruise + Impacts or Negative impacts”等等,时间跨度为2002-2016年。剔除重复文献,共获得75篇相关文献。首先,从年度载文量来看,2010年后文献数量增长迅速(图1),说明近年来邮轮旅游可持续性或责任性议题开始成为研究热点。
图1 2002-2016年国外载文数量年度分布
Fig.1 Annual number of articles published internationally, 2002-2016
从研究视角来看,国外学者主要从经济有限性、自然环境破坏和社会文化冲击等方面对邮轮旅游可持续性与责任性问题展开讨论。从研究方法来看,邮轮旅游对经济和社会—文化方面的影响研究主要采用一般社会学的研究方法,比如基于问卷调查进行的统计分析、回归分析、因子分析、路径分析以及结构方程模型等;而在环境影响方面,则主要采用与环境污染相关的监测、治理、风险评估和成本估算等方法。从研究对象来看,大多数文献以特定区域的案例地为背景探讨邮轮旅游对当地的影响作用,且案例地多选择邮轮旅游业较为发达的区域,包括加勒比海地区、地中海地区、阿拉斯加地区、加拿大北极区、百慕大地区以及北欧地区等,具体研究文献、案例地和研究主题如表1所示。从国内外研究成果比较来看,邮轮产业的负效应问题早已成为国际学术界的一个热点问题,而国内学者对该问题的关注度还不够,研究成果非常有限,研究内容不够具体,分析讨论不够深刻,方法运用也不够精细,特别是缺乏细致的案例研究。为此,本文主要基于国外研究成果,分别从邮轮旅游经济效益的有限性、邮轮旅游对人文—社会的冲击和邮轮旅游对自然环境的负面影响等3个角度,对相关研究成果进行梳理,并进一步提出负责任邮轮旅游的系统框架。
表1 研究案例地分布及研究视角
Tab.1 Geographical distribution of case studies and relevant research perspectives
| 研究文献 | 案例地 | 邮轮旅游的负效应研究 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 经济有限性 | 环境破坏 | 社会文化冲击 | ||
| Avellaneda等(2011) | 哥伦比亚地区 | √ | ||
| Baker等(2013) | 加勒比海地区 | √ | ||
| Beukering等(2015) | 百慕大 | √ | ||
| Brida等(2010b) | 哥斯达黎加 | √ | ||
| Brida等(2011) | 卡塔赫纳(哥伦比亚) | √ | ||
| Brida等(2014) | 西西里岛和撒丁岛 | √ | ||
| Butt(2007) | 英国南安普顿 | √ | ||
| Carić等(2014) | 亚得里亚海 | √ | ||
| Carić等(2016) | 杜布罗夫尼克 | √ | ||
| Chatzinikolaou等(2015) | 希腊比雷埃夫斯港 | √ | ||
| Dawson等(2016) | 加拿大北极区 | √ | √ | √ |
| Del Chiappa等(2013) | 意大利西西里岛 | √ | ||
| Eijgelaar等(2010) | 南极地区 | √ | ||
| Gibson等(2007) | 英格兰西南部 | √ | ||
| Howitt等(2010) | 新西兰地区 | √ | ||
| Hritz等(2008) | 美国基韦斯特 | √ | ||
| Johnson(2006) | 加勒比海地区 | √ | ||
| Jones(2007) | 百慕大 | √ | ||
| Jordan等(2015) | 牙买加法尔茅斯 | √ | ||
| Kaldy(2011) | 阿拉斯加 | √ | ||
| Klein(2009) | 中美洲伯利兹 | √ | ||
| Klein(2011) | 中美洲伯利兹 | √ | ||
| Larsen等(2013) | 挪威西部 | √ | ||
| Lester等(2004) | 加勒比海地区 | √ | √ | √ |
| Lester等(2016) | 百慕大 | √ | √ | |
| Loehr等(2006) | 阿拉斯加 | √ | ||
| Macpherson(2008) | 太平洋地区 | √ | √ | |
| Maragkogianni等(2015) | 希腊地区 | √ | ||
| Marsh(2012) | 美国查尔斯顿 | √ | ||
| Marušić等(2008) | 克罗地亚 | √ | ||
| Poplawski等(2011) | 加拿大维多利亚港 | √ | ||
| Schembari等(2014) | 地中海西部 | √ | ||
| Stewart等(2011) | 加拿大北极地区 | √ | ||
| Thurau等(2015) | 巴拿马运河 | √ | ||
| van Beukering等(2015) | 百慕大 | √ | ||
从全球价值链来看,邮轮产业是一种由邮轮制造、邮轮运营、邮轮船供、邮轮接待与旅游服务等环节组成的复合型产业。邮轮旅游则依托邮轮母港、停靠港及相关区域的旅游资源,形成了一种跨区域、跨行业、多领域、多渠道的经济现象。随着全球邮轮活动的日益增多,邮轮旅游对社会—文化、经济、政治与环境的影响越来越显著(Véronneau et al, 2009)。在经济效益方面,邮轮旅游对目的地经济的影响体现在邮轮及其乘客的直接、间接以及相关的诱发支出。国际邮轮协会(Cruise Line International Association, CLIA)的统计数据表明,2014年邮轮旅游业为全球带来1000亿美元的总产出、330亿美元的工资福利和77.5万个就业岗位(CLIA, 2014a),其中相当一部分经济效益来源于邮轮制造与维修、邮轮运营、邮轮船供等高附加值的产业环节。虽然从整体行业来看,邮轮旅游的经济效益十分可观,但从经济效应的辐射范围和影响程度来看,则具有相当的有限性。
首先,邮轮产业的投入巨大,成本回收周期漫长。特别对于新兴邮轮区域来说,接待大型邮轮需要大量的基础设施和维修费用等初始资本投入(Macpherson, 2008)。而邮轮业的持续发展,还需要进一步的投资。高额的基础设施投资和环境成本可能导致本地生产总值的停滞甚至下滑(Nowak et al, 2007; Véronneau et al, 2009)。Véronneau等(2009)认为,大型豪华邮轮实际上减少了旅游目的地的潜在经济效益,因为游客并不需要下船消费便可获得满意的服务体验,使得岸上服务运营商难以预测需求,且往往由于定价偏低而承担一定的风险;此外,对于旅游接待地来说,邮轮经济“漏损”和随之而来的物价上涨、经济发展与环境保护之间的矛盾等问题进一步降低了邮轮旅游的辐射效果。
其次,邮轮旅游的经济效益难以估算,而且往往被高估。对于很多国家或地区来说,由于邮轮船舶往往悬挂方便旗(Flag of Convenience)且邮轮员工具有跨国性,难以对邮轮旅游的直接与间接经济效益进行综合评价,通常只能通过游客的花费行为进行调研和预估。比如,Brida等(2010b)从邮轮乘客的人口特征、需求偏好和花费行为入手,对哥斯达黎加邮轮旅游的经济效应进行了测算。研究结果表明,与陆上(Land-based)游客相比,邮轮乘客的年龄更大,富裕程度更低,停留时间更短,花费更少。邮轮乘客在哥斯达黎加的总花费甚至不到陆上旅游的2%。应该说,邮轮旅游在该国是否应该大力推广都值得商榷。Larsen等(2013)对到访挪威的游客进行调研后也发现,邮轮游客的花费显著低于其他类型游客。此外,van Beukering等(2015)的研究也发现,邮轮游客对百慕大的直接贡献仅占航空旅客的9%。
再次,邮轮经济成果的分配不均衡。邮轮旅游的绝大部分经济收入被销售捆绑产品的外国企业获得,而分配给当地居民的部分往往非常有限(Klein, 2011)。一项对中美洲国家伯利兹(Belize)的研究表明,由于直接面向邮轮乘客的购物区租金太高,本地运营商通常无力承租;其次,当地的旅游经销商不仅需要将邮轮乘客岸上服务收入的50%交给邮轮公司,而且还需承担乘客不满意带来的额外风险;再次,伯利兹入境游客的70%是邮轮乘客,然而邮轮旅游业只创造了10%左右的就业,当地社区难以分享邮轮旅游的经济成果(Klein, 2009, 2011)。此外,Lester等(2004)对加勒比海地区的研究后发现,对邮轮旅游的过度依赖不利于目的地经济的可持续发展。
因此,如果缺乏对经济成果的合理分配,邮轮产业经济效益的辐射范围和影响程度是有限的。对于中国来说,邮轮产业还处于起步阶段,港口投资过大、经济效益难以估算以及经济成果分配偏差等问题凸显,比如中国本土邮轮活动不足,邮轮业务主要集中在港口服务和客源代理等环节,经济收益主要来自港口服务和船票代理费用(包括以吨位计算的邮轮停泊费用、计件收费的行李搬运费、旅行社的销售佣金等),其余由综合接待消费、邮轮补给、乘客岸上消费、餐饮供应、劳务收入等构成的收益较小;而与邮轮制造及维修、邮轮公司运营相关的收益则更有限。可以说,单纯依赖邮轮接待而缺乏高附加值的产业环节,将极大地限制邮轮经济的带动作用和可持续性的发展空间。
众所周知,旅游业对社会文化的影响是广泛的,可带来价值体系、家庭关系、个人行为、安全水平、道德行为、集体生活、创意表达、传统仪式、社区组织、文化传承等多方面的变化(Gibson et al, 2007)。一方面,居民与邮轮乘客的交流可以产生积极的影响,比如向当地居民提供获取知识、了解世界、探索新世界观的机会;另一方面,日益增长的邮轮活动往往会压缩本地居民的生活空间,挤占当地的公共基础设施,破坏目的地的自然环境与海洋生态,有时甚至会使本地居民放弃原有的生活方式。比如,加勒比海地区的一些旅游目的地居民的生活方式已经受到游客很大影响,有些地区甚至丧失了本地语言和独特的人文传统 (Marušić et al, 2008; Brida et al, 2010a)。
从文化冲击来看,邮轮旅游可能对目的地本真性造成影响。Marsh(2012)对美国南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿地区的研究也发现,邮轮旅游会给滨海文化遗产城市带来直接威胁,应加强政府监管和政策制定以减少邮轮旅游对文化遗产的冲击。Hritz等(2008)采用定性分析法对美国佛罗里达基韦斯特(Key West)进行研究后发现,当地居民普遍担心邮轮乘客大量涌入会淹没城市的古朴和狭窄的街道,最终使城市失去原本的特色。此外,外来游客有时并不能很好地理解和尊重当地的特殊文化和习俗,甚至带有个人偏见来宣传当地的旅游形象。
从社会效应来看,邮轮旅游会对当地社区及其居民生活产生负面影响。Baker等(2013)对加勒比海地区进行研究后指出,邮轮旅游可能对目的地的社会环境造成不利影响,比如邮轮游客岸上活动期间往往携带较多的现金或贵重物品(如相机、珠宝等),比较容易成为犯罪分子的目标,客观上会导致当地犯罪率上升,名誉下降。最近,Jordan等(2015)在压力应对理论(Stress and Coping Theory)框架下对牙买加法尔茅斯(Falmouth, Jamaica)居民进行研究,发现78%的当地居民对新建邮轮港口的发展与运营感到压力;压力感主要来自对邮轮旅游期望满足的不确定性、负担过重的基础设施、生活空间拥挤、生活成本增加、环境污染以及警察骚扰等方面。为此,相关企业、政府部门和社会组织应分别在邮轮旅游引入之前和发展之后采取有效措施提升居民对社会支持和压力可控性的感知,以显著降低居民的压力感(Jordan et al, 2015)。因此,邮轮旅游影响的两面性使得居民往往持有不同的态度。Del Chiappa等(2013)对意大利西西里岛墨西拿(Messina)港1500位居民进行调研后发现,居民对邮轮旅游的态度在人口统计学上具有显著差异,但总体表现出积极态度。然而,Brida等(2014)对地中海地区西西里岛和撒丁岛的居民进行研究后发现,虽然当地居民对邮轮旅游发展表现出总体积极的态度,但同时认为邮轮旅游存在负效应,最大的威胁可能是环境影响。Brida等(2011)的研究则发现,虽然卡塔赫纳(哥伦比亚)居民对邮轮旅游的经济和社会—文化影响持有积极态度,但对后者的态度较为保守。此外,邮轮旅游发展程度对居民的感知也具有不同的影响。Stewart等(2011)通过两个社区案例对加拿大北极地区进行研究发现,对于新兴的邮轮旅游地区,居民往往持有积极甚至赞许的态度;而对于邮轮旅游发展较深入的地区,居民则会出现抗拒心理。
从人力资源角度来看,虽然国际邮轮业享有最灵活和最具全球性的劳动力市场,但严重受限于应聘者特殊的政治、经济以及文化背景,使得该行业面临潜在的劳动力短缺问题。然而,劳动力短缺并未带来员工的高福利。Terry(2011)认为,邮轮劳动力市场特征使得船员的雇佣成本相当高。然而,高额的劳动力成本主要体现在船员从居住地到邮轮出发港的调度成本,而非员工获得的工资福利。出于对环境监管、劳工法以及税收等方面考虑,全球90%以上的邮轮悬挂方便旗(Flag of Convenience)。这些邮轮往往不需要向员工支付本国劳工法规定的法定最低工资。甚至“在许多邮轮甲板下可能隐藏着一个工作时间长、工资低、不安全和剥削的世界”(Brida et al, 2010a)。此外,邮轮工作的等级分配也可能会带有歧视的意味,比如来自欧美发达地区的员工多担任中高层职位,而来自亚洲、加勒比和美洲一些相对不发达地区的员工则多从事较为低端的工作(Brida et al, 2010a)。
从邮轮乘客角度来看,作为独立、封闭的旅游形式,邮轮对乘客安全的处置也存在风险。比如,Prina等(2001)发现,在旅客疾病突发的状况下,邮轮上往往没有足够的条件进行及时的医疗救助,医疗团队、急救药品、特殊应急空间、远程联系、空中疏散支持系统等远没有陆上健全;船上医生可能无法做出正确的医疗诊断而延误治疗,从而造成不可挽回的后果。因此,邮轮公司须凭借基于遥测技术的远程医疗手段、完善的空中疏散系统来提高初期诊断的准确性(Prina et al, 2001)。此外,海上恐怖主义、邮轮运营事故、劳工人权侵犯等也是邮轮旅游的潜在风险。Bonilla-Priego等(2014)从企业社会责任的角度指出,劳工、人权、健康和安全应成为邮轮企业必须面对和解决的首要问题,特别是乘客和员工的安全应成为企业责任的重要组成部分。为此,邮轮产业需要制订标准化和可操作性的指导方针来共同履行社会责任行为。邮轮旅游的安全保障(Safe and Security)应体现在具体的预防性措施,比如完善药品和服务配备、杜绝犯罪(性侵犯和偷窃等)、甚至控制酒水的消费等(Bonilla-Priego et al, 2014) 。另外,Bowen等(2014)采用情景分析法对邮轮乘客的风险感知进行研究后发现,尽管安全性被业界看作是邮轮旅游的“标志”,但仍有44%的受访者认为邮轮恐怖袭击事件很有可能发生。更为具体地,Mileski等(2014)对580次邮轮事故与灾难产生的原因进行分析后认为,缺乏适当的维护保养和人员失误是造成邮轮事故的最主要原因。因此,为了最大限度地降低风险和威胁,相关部门应不断提升邮轮船舶和邮轮港口的安全保障措施。近年来,邮轮业对邮轮安全方面的关注越来越多,这降低了邮轮运营的风险。2015年,国际邮轮协会在其官方网站(http://cruising.org)公布了2009年至2013年全球邮轮运营事故报告。报告指出,虽然2009年至2013年邮轮运力增长了近20%,但重大运营事件数量却有降低趋势(CLIA, 2014b)。
旅游业的蓬勃发展势必带来环境资源的消极影响(唐承财等, 2013; 徐菲菲等, 2016),特别是大型邮轮船舶对海洋环境和自然资源的负面影响不容忽视。邮轮旅游全球范围的增长首先对海洋生态环境带来冲击(Carić et al, 2016)。邮轮航线的跨区域性和多主体参与性,加上邮轮船舶大型化趋势,使得邮轮旅游的环境影响更为广泛。Kaldy等(2011)的研究也发现,邮轮旅游的非谨慎性发展会给目的地带来气候变化、自然资源枯竭、水和能源的过度需求等环境问题。Johnson(2002)利用生命周期理论(Life-Cycle Analysis, LCA)将邮轮旅游的环境影响分为5部分：①基础设施建造。自然环境改造使得目的地自然栖息地减少,海岸及沉积模式发生改变;②基础设施运营。包括能源使用带来的水和空气质量污染以及其他对环境和海洋生态系统造成的有意或无意的物理损坏;③乘客运输及物流配送。主要包括乘客运输与船供相关的交通衔接活动对邮轮母港或目的地环境承载的压力;④消耗与利用。包括大量游客涌入对水的消耗、化学品和清洁剂的使用、乱抛垃圾、娱乐活动对野生动物的干扰,以及将濒危动物作为礼物造成的生态压力;⑤废弃物排放。主要指国际海事组织(International Maritime Organization, IMO)界定的船舶污染物,包括油类、垃圾、污水、塑料和有害物质等。从邮轮污染源来看,除空气污染物外,邮轮船舶会产生大量破坏海洋环境的废水与废物,包括污水(Sewage)、杂排水(Graywater)、危险废物(Hazardous Wastes)、油污水(Oily Bilge Water)、压载水(Ballast Water)和固体废物(Solid Waste)等(表2)。此外,邮轮船舶除了产生破坏环境的排放物,也存在对生态及居民健康造成影响的有毒物质和细菌。比如,2000年美国阿拉斯加环境保护署(Department of Environmental Conservation)对邮轮活动区进行抽样研究后发现,该地海洋设备污水处理的卫生条件没有达到预期效果,未经处理的灰水污染物中存在令人惊讶的细菌,黑水和灰水的有毒物含量也超过了国家标准,证明当地居民关于邮轮旅游对生态与健康影响的担心不是多余的(Loehr et al, 2006)。
表2 邮轮船舶生产的主要污染源(
Tab.2 Main sources of waste generated by cruise ships (
| 污染源 | 说明 |
|---|---|
| 黑水 | 生活污水。通常每位乘客每天产生10加仑黑水。 |
| 灰水 | 包括水槽、淋浴废水等。通常每位乘客每天产生90加仑灰水。 |
| 垃圾和固体废物 | 每名邮轮乘客每天可以生产3.5 kg固体废物。 |
| 危险废物 | 包括干洗材料、印刷废物(Print Shop Waste)、化学清洁和电池等。一艘邮轮每天可产生此类有毒废物(Toxic Waste)15加仑 |
| 油性舱底水 | 收集于船体的燃油、机油和废水等污染物。一艘邮轮每天可产生7000加仑此类有毒废物。 |
| 压载水 | 压载水用于保证船舶稳性,但排出的压载水可能引入非本地物种。 |
| 尾气排放 | 邮轮可排放相当于12000辆汽车产生的废气,而且在港口社区地带更为严重。 |
从影响程度来看,研究者发现邮轮旅游的环境影响远大于一般的旅游形式。Eijgelaar等(2010)对南极地区进行了评估,发现邮轮旅游会产生大量温室气体,人均排放量比一般旅游方式高出8倍,对极地区产生很大影响,为此,加拿大政府作出巨大努力以降低燃油中硫的含量,并计划于2016年实现对氮氧化物的处理。政府和产业组织还加大了邮轮岸上电力和清洁技术的推广力度(Eijgelaar et al, 2010)。需要注意的是,该项排放数据中并未包含游客由居住地往返邮轮母港过程中产生的排放数据。特别是对于偏远地区的游客来说,邮轮旅游之外的交通承接(比如长途飞行)所产生的碳排放量不容忽视。Howitt等(2010)对往返新西兰邮轮的二氧化碳排放量进行测度后发现,在考虑邮轮规模、发动机年限、发动机大小、舒适板载水平、船员数量和邮轮服务等因素后,邮轮碳排放量显著高于客机。Klein(2009)的研究发现,邮轮的平均碳排放量超过飞机、火车和轮渡的3倍。此外,Howitt等(2010)也发现,邮轮实现酒店功能的能源需求量要比普通高档酒店多5倍。Carić等(2014)在对亚得里亚海进行研究后发现,邮轮停靠时间越来越短导致短时间内涌入更多的邮轮游客,进一步加重了邮轮旅游对环境的威胁,甚至可能使得环境成本比对当地的经济贡献高出7倍。
从污染源及其影响范围来看,现有文献主要以特定目的地为背景进行了案例研究。Butt(2007)研究了南安普顿地区邮轮产生的污水、固态废弃物及有害气体排放对母港和挂靠港的环境影响,并发现固体废弃物是最主要的污染源。Carić等(2016)采用风险分析和三角测度法对杜布罗夫尼克旧城港口进行环境分析和评估后发现,邮轮船舶防污染涂料中的抗微生物剂是造成海洋污染的重要因素之一。Jones(2007)采用层次分析法和主成分分析法,从生态毒理和风险评估的角度探讨了邮轮涂料沉积物对珊瑚礁的化学污染,发现现有邮轮船舶涂料大多含有铜或锌,是造成海洋金属污染的主要原因,会对珊瑚礁造成较为严重的生态威胁,进而降低生物多样性以及相关补救措施的有效性。Beukering等(2015) 运用旅行成本法、条件价值评价法等对百慕大邮轮旅游进行评估后发现,珊瑚礁对该地区的年均经济贡献达到4.06亿美元,而邮轮旅游对珊瑚礁则有较明显的破坏作用。Poplawski等(2011)以加拿大维多利亚港为例发现,
从环保应对手段来看,Avellaneda等(2011)以哥伦比亚地区为案例地,采用贝叶斯分析法对邮轮固体废弃物处理方式进行风险评估后发现,深水处理和焚烧废弃物对环境危害最小。Lester等(2016)对百慕大的研究也发现,在同时考虑旅游收入、扩建成本和环境(珊瑚)破坏等因素后,保持现状而非迎合船舶大型化趋势将是当前该地区风险最低的邮轮旅游发展策略。Kaldy(2011)以及Loehr等(2006)以阿拉斯加为例,通过建立包含邮轮宽度、邮轮吃水深度、航行速度和污水排放率等自变量的初始稀释方程模型,探讨了“稀释”对于大型邮轮污水排放的重要性。研究发现,通过调整邮轮大小、航行速度可以达到减少邮轮废水排放的效果。当邮轮速度大于等于6海里/时且离岸大于等于1海里时,邮轮污水排放不会造成水污染。
此外,向游客提供生态旅游产品将在一定程度上降低邮轮旅游的环境影响。作为一种资源可持续利用的方式,生态旅游具备“保护自然”和“社区受益”两大特征(钟林生等, 2016)。然而,目前大量岸上活动不具有生态旅游的特性。Johnson(2006)对加勒比海地区岸上活动进行评估后发现,森林之旅、全地形车(ATV)探险、喷射快艇以及缺少指导的潜水运动等均可能对自然环境造成物理损害。Thurau等(2015)对巴拿马运河地区进行研究后发现,将近70%的邮轮目的地都遭受了生态破坏,而生态旅游能带来长期的生态和经济效益,是未来邮轮旅游的发展方向。特别是,目的地本身可通过更多努力向乘客提供基于生态旅游的岸上观光产品,从而在源头上降低对当地环境的负面影响(Carić et al, 2014)。
另外,Dawson等(2014)以加拿大北极区为例进行研究后提出,在邮轮旅游环境应对方面要建立统一的管理机构,制定管理计划、站点方针等,使社会、经济、环境协调发展。目前亚得里亚海区已经实施了防污公约、环保指令等;欧盟则实施了强制靠港船舶使用低硫燃油的减排措施;美国加州也于2015年1月1日实施强制靠港船舶使用岸电的减排措施(Dawson et al, 2014) 。Lester等(2004)基于利益相关者理论对加勒比海地区进行评估后认为,基础设施建设、旅游者活动以及邮轮海上运营等对环境的破坏将造成各方关系紧张。因此,利益相关者之间的合作极其重要。经营商需要在改善环境方面作出努力,不能一味追求游客数量上的不断突破,而使环境质量日益下降。此外,邮轮污染的跨界性要求各国政府联合起来,制定邮轮排放废弃物的硬性标准,同时推广使用减排技术,促进废弃物循环和再利用。国家需要制定新法律,明文规定邮轮废弃物超标的法律责任;港口需要制定废弃物管理计划、签订环境承诺书,与地方政府及各利益相关群体合作解决。从现有行业状况来看,邮轮业也正努力通过减少对环境的损害而变得更加环保。随着绿色需求与个人环保意识的日益增强,希望邮轮旅游业能因其良好的责任性而变得更具竞争力。
随着研究者和业者对旅游活动负面影响的批评与审视不断增加,“负责任旅游”(Responsible Tourism)概念应运而生,已成为旅游研究和实践的一个热点领域。最早期,负责任旅游重点关注旅行社与游客等参与主体,通常被理解为能使当地社区获益、并减少负面社会和环境影响的广泛的旅游者互动。后来的利益相关者理论则将其拓展到了不同区域、不同主体、不同领域、不同层次、不同环节的旅游活动。2002年8月,世界可持续发展首脑会议在南非举行,期间举办了第一届旅游目的地负责任旅游(Responsible Tourism in Destination, RTD)国际会议,并签署了《旅游目的地负责任旅游开普敦宣言(The Cape Town Declaration）》,标志着负责任旅游被提到全球议事日程(张帆, 2012）。RTD国际会议每年在不同的目的地举行,截止到2016年的芬兰会议(RTD12）,已经成功举办12届。负责任旅游关注旅游活动的经济性、生态性和社会性,旨在减少旅游对当地经济、社会—文化和环境产生的负面影响,并基于参与性、公平性原则来达到改善就业条件、提高当地旅游参与能力、保护自然环境以及维护文化多样性的目的。从负责任旅游概念界定来看,目前存在规模说、方法说/开发说、伦理说和行为说几种。其中规模说以小规模旅游代替大众旅游为核心内容,方法说/开发说关注旅游规划、旅游开发与政策制定中的责任性理念,伦理说强调旅游的生态伦理、社会伦理及相关行为准则,行为说则以游客为核心强调旅游活动与当地自然环境、社会文化之间的关系(张帆, 2006）。虽然在概念解读上负责任旅游与“可持续旅游”(Sustainable Tourism)、“生态旅游”(Eco-tourism)、“伦理旅游”(Ethical Tourism)、“扶贫旅游”(Pro-poor Tourism)以及其他相关的社会意识旅游有所不同(表3),但在实践中却具有很大的共同性(Caruana et al, 2014),根本目的都是在最大化旅游发展的积极影响的同时,最大限度地减少旅游活动对社会、经济、环境的负面效应(Frey et al, 2010)。
表3 负责任旅游及其他旅游概念
Tab.3 Definition of responsible tourism-related terms
| 文献 | 概念 | 含义 |
|---|---|---|
| Klein (2011) | 负责任旅游 | ■ 最小化负面的经济、环境与社会影响。 ■ 为当地居民创造更大的经济利益,提高社区居民的福祉,改善工作条件,并允许其进入该行业。 ■ 让当地居民参与到影响其生活或生存机会的决策中来。 ■ 对自然和文化遗产保护以及维护世界多样性做出积极贡献。 ■ 通过与当地居民建立更有意义的联系和更深入地了解当地文化、社会和环境问题,为旅游者提供更愉悦的体验。 ■ 满足残障游客的旅游需求。 ■ 保持文化敏感性,建立游客和接待方之间的尊重,塑造地方自豪感和自信心。 |
| Middleton (1998) | 可持续旅游 | ■ 可持续旅游是指实现一种由不同类型、不同数量的游客以及不同的企业活动构成的特定组合,在可预见的将来继续存在,而不会破坏所依赖的环境质量。 ■ 可持续旅游强调游客体验、接待地生活质量和环境保护。 |
| Weeden (2002) | 伦理旅游 | ■ 伦理旅游超越可持续旅游的3个原则,认识到旅游者和旅游服务提供商必须为自己的行为和态度承担一定的道德责任。 ■ 并强调不同利益群体在旅游决策过程中的公平性。 |
| Fennell (2001) | 生态旅游 | ■ 生态旅游是指带着一定的研究目的,进入相对未受干扰或未被污染的自然区域,欣赏和享受当地的自然景观和野生动植物,探索当地的文化表现形式。 ■ 生态旅游强调环境保护、有意义的社区参与以及有利可图并可持续。 |
| Goodwin等(2003) | 扶贫旅游 | ■ 扶贫旅游不是特定的旅游产品,而是确保接待地贫困居民能以公平和可持续的方式获得经济利益的一种旅游开发和管理的方法。 ■ 扶贫旅游更强调“旅游扶贫”的理论,强调通过就业、小微企业发展、基础设施建设以及决策参与等方式提高贫困人口的生活条件。 |
从实践目标来看,负责任旅游要通盘考虑旅游活动的广泛影响,最终实现：①为当地社区创造更好生存空间;②提升旅游者在目的地的旅游体验;③为旅游企业创造更好的经营机会(Chan et al, 2015)。为此,负责任旅游需要关注旅游发展带来的3种负面影响,包括旅游对自然环境的破坏、旅游对社会—文化的冲击和经济利益在不同部门间的分配非公平性(Jones, 2007)。负责任旅游突出“责任性”的概念：①强调通过可持续性开发利用促进对资源与环境的责任性;②强调保证当地社区参与旅游发展并分享成果的责任性;③强调对旅游者安全保障的责任性;④强调在态度与行为层面上负责任的参与主体,包括政府、社区、企业、员工和游客等个人和组织。
与传统岸上(Land-based)旅游相比,邮轮旅游系统更为复杂,具有全球性、多区域和多主体参与的特点。邮轮业通过全球性的产业扩张和错综复杂的航线布局,对不同国别、不同区域、不同部门、不同个人以及不同产业的利益相关者施加广泛而深远的影响。显然,负责任邮轮旅游应该从利益相关者视角进行审视,并构筑一个由邮轮企业、邮轮母港、挂靠港、相关个人及组织等共同参与的行动框架,其中邮轮企业主要指邮轮公司、旅行社、岸上活动服务商等与邮轮运营及票务相关的企业;邮轮母港涉及港口/码头、船舶代理、邮轮船供、金融保险、邮轮维护以及其他支撑企业;挂靠港主体则主要涉及码头运营商、岸上旅游提供商、交通承接商、岸上商贩、景点景区等;个人方面则主要包括邮轮员工、邮轮游客和社区居民等参与者;相关组织主要指政府部门、邮轮协会、产业联盟等非营利性组织(Nonprofit Organization, NGO),如图2所示。在负责任邮轮旅游框架下,各利益相关主体需要通过区域合作与科学规划来提高各方参与性,在抵消和平衡各方权利差距下拟定以经济、社会、文化和环境协同发展为目标的行为准则,最终将邮轮旅游打造成一个负责任而可持续性的产业形态。
随着邮轮产业的全球化、邮轮船舶的大型化以及邮轮航线的短程化,负责任邮轮旅游实践将变得更为复杂、艰难和迫切。负责任邮轮旅游系统涉及众多的利益相关者,而有效实施负责任的邮轮旅游行为则取决于参与主体的行动主导性。在负责任邮轮旅游行动框架中,政府、企业与协会等社会组织的态度与行为对邮轮旅游的责任性实践具有引领作用。首先,政府部门、产业组织及行业协会应该充分发挥法规、政策、行业标准制订以及监督管理的作用,通过对邮轮产业及邮轮市场进行规范和监督,最终实现自然资源保护利用、社会文化有效传承、游客体验提升、居民福祉提高的目标。在法规政策层面,各地政府部门既要尊重邮轮国际惯例,又要充分考虑本土特点,通过区域合作做到法规政策统一、监督管理一致。特别在监管过程中,应强调负责任邮轮旅游的目的性而非方法手段本身。比如,环境的责任性不是关注邮轮公司是否配备了先进的污水处理系统或者是否遵守环保法规,而是污水处理系统排出的物质是否仍给自然资源以及当地居民带来实质性的伤害;经济的责任性不是关注邮轮港口及当地社区是否获得了经济收入,而是强调经济利益在邮轮公司、邮轮港口、旅行社、辅助企业和当地社区之间公平分配的程度(Klein, 2011)。其次,产业组织或行业协会则可通过行业标准、行动计划等手段实现对企业行为进行的引领及规范作用。比如,英国独立旅游运营商协会(AITO)要求协会成员必须履行以下负责任旅游指南：①保护环境,包括动物、植物及景观;②尊重当地文化,包括传统、宗教及建筑遗产;③使当地社区受益,包括经济效益与社会效益;④强调全程保护自然资源;⑤最大程度地减少污染,包括噪音、拥堵和废物处置等(Goodwin et al, 2003)。
在负责任邮轮旅游框架下,作为邮轮产业的最核心组成部分之一,邮轮公司应该在企业社会责任基础上通过更高水平的责任性来谨慎处理与邮轮港口、目的地、旅行社、岸上服务商、船供企业、邮轮游客以及社区居民之间的关系,积极培育和引导负责任的邮轮旅游文化、态度与行为,促成邮轮经济在不同参与主体之间的合理分配。比如,允许邮轮港口提高相关的接待费用;适度鼓励邮轮港口的基础设施建设,甚至向邮轮港口提供必要的资本与运营管理方面的支持;向旅行社及岸上旅游服务商分配更多的经济收益,并承担必要的票务与服务风险;吸收更多当地企业作为邮轮旅游服务商;雇佣更多当地居民作为邮轮公司及相关企业的员工;向员工提供合理的薪资水平及劳工权利;保障邮轮员工及邮轮乘客的人身、财产安全;提供精确的目的地信息,并引导游客尊重与保护当地的自然环境和人文景观;遵守国际认可或体现更高责任性的本地立法;等等。
作为邮轮旅游接待的基础部门,邮轮港口和邮轮目的地则应通过有效的资源利用和适度的资本投入来实现对邮轮产业的科学规划。众所周知,邮轮对港口的需求要比港口对邮轮的需求更为迫切。港口社区(Port Communities)应从邮轮旅游业中获得公平、公正而广泛的经济收益(Klein, 2011)。邮轮港口应通过区域合作以提升自尊(Self Esteem)水平与谈判能力(Klein, 2009)。此外,邮轮公司、旅行社、邮轮港口、行业协会等组织应共同建立与引导“负责任的邮轮文化”,通过宣传教育引导游客对自然环境、海洋生态、社区文化的责任意识与责任行为。最后,负责任邮轮旅游应吸引本地社区作为重要的决策制定者,特别是关于对社区自然资源、生态环境、生活空间、生产方式、经济发展、人文遗产等方面具有较大影响的决策。
邮轮旅游对区域有效合作、周边经济增长、产业结构调整、旅游服务业开放、港口生产方式转型升级、城市功能再造与复兴等均具有积极的影响作用。然而,作为对自然环境与人文资源依赖性很强的行业,邮轮旅游势必会对目的地自然环境、生存空间、生活方式、文化传承、经济活动和经济发展等方面带来负面的影响作用。从国际学术界来看,邮轮产业的负效应问题早已成为了一个热点问题,但是,国内理论界与业界对邮轮旅游及其影响的认识仍然不够深刻,特别是对邮轮产业在社会、文化和环境等影响方面的负外部性问题没有引起足够关注。为此,本文对邮轮旅游的负效应、责任性以及可持续性等方面的相关研究成果进行梳理、总结,并提出了一个由政府部门、行业组织、邮轮港口、邮轮公司、旅游企业、当地社区、员工与游客等利益相关者组成的负责任邮轮旅游系统结构与行动框架。希望能够引起更多经济学、管理学、社会学、人类学、心理学、地理学、伦理学、环境学和生态学等相关领域研究者的重视,以更专业的眼光共同审视中国邮轮旅游业的负效应、责任性与可持续性问题,为邮轮产业持续与健康发展提供理论指导与实践支持,最终将中国邮轮旅游业打造成一个可持续性和负责任的产业。
鉴于目前中国邮轮产业的发展现状,未来可从以下几个方面对中国邮轮旅游的责任性与可持续性问题展开研究：
(1) 邮轮旅游对中国沿海港口区域的环境影响。从现有文献来看,邮轮旅游对自然环境的负面影响是国际上的热点问题,研究成果最多。现有文献主要以特定区域为案例地,对邮轮旅游的污染源及其环境影响进行较深入探讨。研究发现,邮轮排放的气体、液体和固体污染物以及游客的不当行为会对自然资源、海洋生态、气候变化、空气质量和人员健康等造成不利影响。随着对旅游业发展的生态效应日益重视,应强调在获得经济效益最大化的同时实现环境影响最小化的目标(姚治国等,2015)。因此,未来的研究可主要以中国沿海邮轮港口区域为案例地,对邮轮停靠过程中的碳排放与碳足迹进行跟踪与评价,并基于特定污染源来探讨邮轮旅游对空气质量与海洋生态等方面影响,从而提出针对性的监控与治理措施。
(2) 邮轮旅游发展与本地社区居民的关系。众所周知,旅游业发展要依托社区,必须处理好与社区及其居民的关系(王军等, 2011)。不同类型的旅游地具有不同的社区特征,从而使得居民对旅游感知也不相同(卢松等, 2008, 2009)。居民的地方认同感、对旅游发展的态度将直接影响其开发偏好和后续决策行为(宣国富等, 2002; 杨兴柱等, 2005; 汪侠等, 2010)。因此,在邮轮旅游发展中必须重视居民态度及其利益诉求,从而获得当地居民的支持。本文研究发现,大量邮轮游客的涌入会挤占当地居民的生活空间和生活资源,造成目的地社区物价上涨、交通堵塞甚至垃圾成山,使得居民的生活质量下降,同时也降低了邮轮游客的旅游体验。因此,未来研究可对中国沿海港口社区及居民进行研究,重点关注本地居民对邮轮港口基础设施建设的态度、对邮轮旅游发展的风险感知以及居民参与邮轮旅游发展的决策意愿等方面,从而使邮轮旅游能真正为当地居民带来实质利益,提高居民的满意度。
(3) 邮轮旅游与港口功能再造同滨海旅游发展的关系。从社会—文化影响来看,邮轮旅游可能对目的文化、遗产、风俗、习惯等造成冲击,损害目的地原真性。为了吸引邮轮停靠和乘客访问,邮轮港口城市往往花费大量人力物力进行港区和滨海旅游岸线建设,以迎合国际邮轮旅游的需求。然而,失去本真特色的规划建设,不利于滨海区域的可持续发展。未来研究可关注邮轮港口的基础设施建设与功能配备同城市功能转型、空间再造与滨海旅游规划之间的关系,从而实现城市、港口功能演化与邮轮产业发展之间的协调互动。
(4) 邮轮产业经济效益的测度及利益分配模式研究。现有研究发现,邮轮旅游对区域经济的影响具有不确定性。目前中国正处在邮轮产业的初级阶段,经济效益主要来自港口规费、船舶代理费用、票务销售佣金等收入,而间接和诱发的经济效益则难以测算。未来研究可关注邮轮经济效益的测评、邮轮经济景气指数以及风险管理等问题。此外,对于新兴邮轮区域来说,邮轮维护保养、物资供应、目的地岸上观光等本土化的邮轮活动较少,加上邮轮出入境逆差明显,使得邮轮经济的辐射范围有限。未来研究可进一步探讨邮轮公司、邮轮港口、旅行社、岸上旅游企业以及当地社区等参与主体之间的竞争、合作与利益分配模式。
(5) 邮轮突发事件风险评估与预警研究。与一般岸上旅游相比,邮轮旅游往往承担着更大的突发事件风险。邮轮船舶通常悬挂方便旗以规避劳工法、环境法、安保法等法规限制,船员、游客在工资福利、安全健康、人格尊严等方面的权利可能面临挑战。此外,由于邮轮航线的跨国、跨区域性,加上受海啸、台风、雷击、传染病、偷渡、走私等因素的影响,邮轮突发事件具有多样性和复杂性,风险管控难度较大。为此,邮轮港口和邮轮船舶的公共安全事件、公共卫生事件、自然灾害、重大事故的风险因素识别、指标体系构建、预警以及应对策略等内容应该成为未来重点关注的研究方向。此外,邮轮产业要重视游客对出游风险的感知。因为,旅游者的风险认知水平对游客满意度和忠诚度有重要影响(李敏等, 2011)。因此,邮轮旅游在关注以上研究方向的同时,还应关注邮轮旅游安全形象塑造以及潜在旅游者风险认知等方面的研究。
(6) 邮轮产业的法规政策与行业标准研究。目前,中国邮轮产业发展存在着诸多政策性问题,如入境监管程序复杂、邮轮管理制度欠缺、邮轮业人才机制缺乏、邮轮专项法律缺失、培育本土邮轮产业链的法律障碍、旅游服务的外资准入限制、邮轮国籍转换限制等。区域合作、科学规划、公平参与、统一标准是保障负责任邮轮旅游得以实现的首要任务,而顶层设计至关重要。为此,在负责任邮轮旅游框架下,政府部门、行业协会和产业组织如何从法规政策层面引导邮轮旅游的环境立法、合同立法、劳动立法以及邮轮旅游服务标准制订等方面的工作将是有意义的研究方向。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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旅游地居民对旅游影响感知和态度的比较: 以西递景区与九寨沟景区为例 [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2008.06.009 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
旅游地居民感知与态度研究是旅游地理学研究的重要主题之一，居民感知的跨区域、跨文化的共时性分析是该领域研究未来努力的方向之一。选择世界遗产地西递和九寨沟为研究案例，进行旅游地居民旅游影响感知的比较研究。结果显示：①两地居民对旅游发展均表现出积极态度，但九寨沟居民的响应程度和支持程度更为强烈，其旅游经济收入上要远高于西递。②九寨沟居民在旅游经济收益、旅游社会文化影响、旅游环境影响的上的感知均明显强于西递，同时在旅游经济成本感知上也明显强于西递。③相关分析和回归分析分别从样本基本特征中识别了西递和九寨沟居民支持旅游发展态度的相关因素和判别指标。分析结果表明，不同类型的旅游地具有不同的旅游社区特征，在旅游地性质、对旅游业的依赖程度、经济发展水平、旅游资源产权归属、旅游管理体制、主客文化差异等社区特征上不同的东道主社区应该有着不同的旅游感知。按照社会交换理论。无论是从资产的收益权还是从受干扰补偿方面，西递古村落居民相对九寨沟风景区居民具有更高的收益期望，这也导致了其实际获益远低于期望收益，故相对九寨沟居民，西递表现出低估旅游经济收益、社会收益而高估社会成本的倾向。
Comparison of resort residents' perceptions and attitudes: Case studies in Xidi Village and Jiuzhaigou [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2008.06.009 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
旅游地居民感知与态度研究是旅游地理学研究的重要主题之一，居民感知的跨区域、跨文化的共时性分析是该领域研究未来努力的方向之一。选择世界遗产地西递和九寨沟为研究案例，进行旅游地居民旅游影响感知的比较研究。结果显示：①两地居民对旅游发展均表现出积极态度，但九寨沟居民的响应程度和支持程度更为强烈，其旅游经济收入上要远高于西递。②九寨沟居民在旅游经济收益、旅游社会文化影响、旅游环境影响的上的感知均明显强于西递，同时在旅游经济成本感知上也明显强于西递。③相关分析和回归分析分别从样本基本特征中识别了西递和九寨沟居民支持旅游发展态度的相关因素和判别指标。分析结果表明，不同类型的旅游地具有不同的旅游社区特征，在旅游地性质、对旅游业的依赖程度、经济发展水平、旅游资源产权归属、旅游管理体制、主客文化差异等社区特征上不同的东道主社区应该有着不同的旅游感知。按照社会交换理论。无论是从资产的收益权还是从受干扰补偿方面，西递古村落居民相对九寨沟风景区居民具有更高的收益期望，这也导致了其实际获益远低于期望收益，故相对九寨沟居民，西递表现出低估旅游经济收益、社会收益而高估社会成本的倾向。
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旅游地居民对旅游影响感知与态度的历时性分析: 以世界文化遗产西递景区为例 [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2009020026 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
旅游地居民感知与态度研究是旅游地理学的重要主题之一。古村落是一种特殊类型的旅游地,开展居民旅游感知与态度研究对于古村落旅游可持续发展与文化遗产保护显得尤其重要与紧迫。本文选择世界文化遗产西递为研究案例,进行旅游地居民旅游影响感知的历时性分析,结果显示：1）随着时间的推进,社区居民从个体层面对旅游业的依赖日益加强。2）随着旅游事业的不断推进,居民更加重视和认识到旅游所带来的社会文化效应和环境效应。这反映出居民对旅游影响的关注符合人们一般认知规律：由形式转向本质,由经济转向文化,由物质转向精神。3）居民对旅游影响感知的时间变化涉及个体、景区、政府等诸多因素影响。本文较为系统地揭示了旅游地居民对旅游影响感知时间差异的影响因素及其形成机制。
The temporally comparative study of residents' perceptions and attitudes in ancient villages: A case study of Xidi Village, one of the world cultural heritage sites [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2009020026 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
旅游地居民感知与态度研究是旅游地理学的重要主题之一。古村落是一种特殊类型的旅游地,开展居民旅游感知与态度研究对于古村落旅游可持续发展与文化遗产保护显得尤其重要与紧迫。本文选择世界文化遗产西递为研究案例,进行旅游地居民旅游影响感知的历时性分析,结果显示：1）随着时间的推进,社区居民从个体层面对旅游业的依赖日益加强。2）随着旅游事业的不断推进,居民更加重视和认识到旅游所带来的社会文化效应和环境效应。这反映出居民对旅游影响的关注符合人们一般认知规律：由形式转向本质,由经济转向文化,由物质转向精神。3）居民对旅游影响感知的时间变化涉及个体、景区、政府等诸多因素影响。本文较为系统地揭示了旅游地居民对旅游影响感知时间差异的影响因素及其形成机制。
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邮轮霸船之法律考量: 以《旅游法》为分析进路 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2014.10.22 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
邮轮霸船已成为邮轮旅游发展之实质障碍,在2013牟《中华人民 共和国旅游法》(以下简称《旅游法》)生效之后,将邮轮霸船行为置于《旅游法》框架下进行考量确为解决问题之良策.首先明确邮轮公司与旅客各自的法律定 位,邮轮旅客身份发生了从旅客到消费者再到不轨旅客的嬗变,将邮轮公司定性为《旅游法》下的履行辅助人则更为恰当,并厘清彼此之间的法律关系,进而分析邮 轮霸船中“不轨旅客”因违反法定义务而对邮轮公司法定权利的践踏与公共秩序安全的危害.为此,邮轮霸船问题的有效解决亟须确立“疏堵并举”的法治化治理理 念,严格执法,并以倒逼的方式来培养旅客的规则意识,同时,需要通过域外旅游纠纷裁决制度的本土化构建来形成一套行之有效的争端解决机制.
The legal consideration of occupying the cruising ferry: An analytical approach of tourism law [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2014.10.22 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
邮轮霸船已成为邮轮旅游发展之实质障碍,在2013牟《中华人民 共和国旅游法》(以下简称《旅游法》)生效之后,将邮轮霸船行为置于《旅游法》框架下进行考量确为解决问题之良策.首先明确邮轮公司与旅客各自的法律定 位,邮轮旅客身份发生了从旅客到消费者再到不轨旅客的嬗变,将邮轮公司定性为《旅游法》下的履行辅助人则更为恰当,并厘清彼此之间的法律关系,进而分析邮 轮霸船中“不轨旅客”因违反法定义务而对邮轮公司法定权利的践踏与公共秩序安全的危害.为此,邮轮霸船问题的有效解决亟须确立“疏堵并举”的法治化治理理 念,严格执法,并以倒逼的方式来培养旅客的规则意识,同时,需要通过域外旅游纠纷裁决制度的本土化构建来形成一套行之有效的争端解决机制.
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邮轮运输突发事件应急体系及其法制衔接 [J].
邮轮运输突发事件应急体系是国家应急处理体系的一个特殊面相,考虑到突发事件的特性,战略部署上可以有所侧重。应急体制的变革上,除了政府与社会层面的责任外,市场、传播媒介等具备沟通政府和社会力量的外部系统在邮轮运输突发事件中应该更受重视,这也是风险应对理念的嬗变使然。应急法制的建设上,顶层设计与具体操作之间存在的断层需要更重视多元主体参与的应急法制予以调整,以回应政府、应急市场、公众、乘客以及邮轮运输企业等多方利益诉求,这也是回应型行政视野下的法治期望。
Cruise liner transportation emergency system and its cohesion with legal system [J].
邮轮运输突发事件应急体系是国家应急处理体系的一个特殊面相,考虑到突发事件的特性,战略部署上可以有所侧重。应急体制的变革上,除了政府与社会层面的责任外,市场、传播媒介等具备沟通政府和社会力量的外部系统在邮轮运输突发事件中应该更受重视,这也是风险应对理念的嬗变使然。应急法制的建设上,顶层设计与具体操作之间存在的断层需要更重视多元主体参与的应急法制予以调整,以回应政府、应急市场、公众、乘客以及邮轮运输企业等多方利益诉求,这也是回应型行政视野下的法治期望。
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基于要素叠加的旅游景区经济影响域空间分异: 以八达岭长城景区为例 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2010.02.014 URL 摘要
本文在旅游景区的层次上,以旅游经济影响的空间范围——旅游经济影响域为视角进行研究和空间尺度推绎,探索在空间尺度上评估旅游景区对周边地区经济影响的程度和范围的定量分析方法,提出了旅游景区经济影响域的概念和关键指标界定,并分析了典型案例北京郊区经济辐射特点显著的景区——八达岭长城旅游区的辐射影响范围。在对八达岭周边的岔道、石佛寺等案例区域实施现场调研的基础上,获取了旅游就业、旅游收入和居民感知要素的旅游经济指标的实测值。然后运用旅游区位商模型、聚类分析等方法对样本数据进行总体趋势分析,从而分别测算出基于就业、收入和感知的八达岭景区旅游经济影响域的空间结构,最终通过要素叠加法刻画出旅游经济影响域的空间结构。
Research on the economic impact domain and spatial structure of tourism areas based on the element superposition model: A case study of Badaling Tourism Area in Beijing [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2010.02.014 URL 摘要
本文在旅游景区的层次上,以旅游经济影响的空间范围——旅游经济影响域为视角进行研究和空间尺度推绎,探索在空间尺度上评估旅游景区对周边地区经济影响的程度和范围的定量分析方法,提出了旅游景区经济影响域的概念和关键指标界定,并分析了典型案例北京郊区经济辐射特点显著的景区——八达岭长城旅游区的辐射影响范围。在对八达岭周边的岔道、石佛寺等案例区域实施现场调研的基础上,获取了旅游就业、旅游收入和居民感知要素的旅游经济指标的实测值。然后运用旅游区位商模型、聚类分析等方法对样本数据进行总体趋势分析,从而分别测算出基于就业、收入和感知的八达岭景区旅游经济影响域的空间结构,最终通过要素叠加法刻画出旅游经济影响域的空间结构。
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评述与反思: ”海娜号”邮轮韩国被扣案之法律问题 [J].Review and reflection on the legal issues of the case of Cruise Ship Hai Na [J]. |
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中国邮轮旅游产业:研究现状与趋势 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.02.018 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
邮轮产业已经成为现代旅游业中发展最为迅猛的行业,近几年达到8％左右的增长速度,被视为“漂浮在黄金水道上的黄金产业”.然而,邮轮业并没有引起学术界的足够关注,研究成果还非常有限.近年来国际邮轮市场的倾斜,使得中国邮轮旅游业发展势头强劲,已成为中国经济增长的新方式和新领域.文章基于国内现有的文献资料,对中国邮轮旅游产业的研究问题和研究成果进行了综述.首先介绍了世界邮轮业的概况和中国邮轮业的发展现状；其次从宏观审视和微观分析的角度讨论了中国学者对邮轮旅游业的研究成果；最后针对中国邮轮产业的问题,从产业集聚视角、利益相关者视角和消费者视角提出了未来值得研究的方向.
Cruise tourism industry in China: Present situation of studies and prospect [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.02.018 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
邮轮产业已经成为现代旅游业中发展最为迅猛的行业,近几年达到8％左右的增长速度,被视为“漂浮在黄金水道上的黄金产业”.然而,邮轮业并没有引起学术界的足够关注,研究成果还非常有限.近年来国际邮轮市场的倾斜,使得中国邮轮旅游业发展势头强劲,已成为中国经济增长的新方式和新领域.文章基于国内现有的文献资料,对中国邮轮旅游产业的研究问题和研究成果进行了综述.首先介绍了世界邮轮业的概况和中国邮轮业的发展现状；其次从宏观审视和微观分析的角度讨论了中国学者对邮轮旅游业的研究成果；最后针对中国邮轮产业的问题,从产业集聚视角、利益相关者视角和消费者视角提出了未来值得研究的方向.
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邮轮公司如何定价: 基于北美市场的实证分析 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.02.012 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
近年来,邮轮产业的发展速度有目共睹,已经成为整个旅游和休闲业中发展最迅速的行业之一。与航空业和酒店业类似,邮轮业具有传统收益管理的行业特征:存量有限、易逝性产品、提前预订和需求不确定性等。收益管理中的动态定价理论与方法已经广泛应用于存量固定且易逝性产品特征的行业,从而帮助企业在有限的销售周期内最大化自身收益。文章通过分析目前北美邮轮市场的一般定价模式,提出了一种基于需求学习的动态价格调整策略。该方法通过一种两阶段框架为邮轮特定航线、未来航次的不同周期进行动态定价,从而在有限的销售时间内最大化未来的总收益。第一阶段,基于历史数据和当前数据确定未来航次不同周期的需求函数;第二阶段,以当前获得的需求函数为基础,确定未来航次不同周期的最优价格,并采用到下一周期的实际预订中。当预订完成且新一周期的需求数据被观测到后,需求函数按照第一阶段的方法再次更新。这一需求学习和价格调整过程循环发生,直到所有的航次都启航。最后,以北美邮轮公司的实际数据为例,进一步讨论了动态定价方法的实施过程。实证分析表明,该方法能在一定程度上提高邮轮公司的总收益。
How to set prices for cruise cabins: An empirical study on the North America Market [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.02.012 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
近年来,邮轮产业的发展速度有目共睹,已经成为整个旅游和休闲业中发展最迅速的行业之一。与航空业和酒店业类似,邮轮业具有传统收益管理的行业特征:存量有限、易逝性产品、提前预订和需求不确定性等。收益管理中的动态定价理论与方法已经广泛应用于存量固定且易逝性产品特征的行业,从而帮助企业在有限的销售周期内最大化自身收益。文章通过分析目前北美邮轮市场的一般定价模式,提出了一种基于需求学习的动态价格调整策略。该方法通过一种两阶段框架为邮轮特定航线、未来航次的不同周期进行动态定价,从而在有限的销售时间内最大化未来的总收益。第一阶段,基于历史数据和当前数据确定未来航次不同周期的需求函数;第二阶段,以当前获得的需求函数为基础,确定未来航次不同周期的最优价格,并采用到下一周期的实际预订中。当预订完成且新一周期的需求数据被观测到后,需求函数按照第一阶段的方法再次更新。这一需求学习和价格调整过程循环发生,直到所有的航次都启航。最后,以北美邮轮公司的实际数据为例,进一步讨论了动态定价方法的实施过程。实证分析表明,该方法能在一定程度上提高邮轮公司的总收益。
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邮轮收益管理的舱位分配: 基于EMSR-a和EMSR-b的比较分析 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.011.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
邮轮业被称为“漂浮在黄金水道上的黄金产业”,近几年达到8％左右的增长速度,成为现代旅游业中发展最迅速的行业.与航空和酒店业一样,邮轮业具有收益管理的所有行业特征,可以看作是典型的收益管理行业.文章基于北美邮轮市场的实际数据,对邮轮收益管理的需求分布特征和存量分配问题进行了研究.首先,以邮轮公司特定航线的需求数据为基础,将实际数据与多种概论分布进行比较,来挖掘邮轮舱位水平上总需求的分布规律.研究表明,正态分布和伽玛分布能较好地拟合邮轮舱位总需求的分布特征.其次,以正态分布为例,基于EMSR-a和EMSR-b两种舱位分配算法,以某次航行的实际数据为基准需求,对高总需求和低总需求下分别考虑(1)高价格舱位高需求和(2)低价格舱位高需求的4种需求状况进行了模拟,并对两种存量分配方法的分配效果进行了比较.结果表明,两种方法分配效果的优劣取决于实际的需求状况.
Capacity allocation for cruise lines revenue management: EMSR-a VS EMSR-b [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.011.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
邮轮业被称为“漂浮在黄金水道上的黄金产业”,近几年达到8％左右的增长速度,成为现代旅游业中发展最迅速的行业.与航空和酒店业一样,邮轮业具有收益管理的所有行业特征,可以看作是典型的收益管理行业.文章基于北美邮轮市场的实际数据,对邮轮收益管理的需求分布特征和存量分配问题进行了研究.首先,以邮轮公司特定航线的需求数据为基础,将实际数据与多种概论分布进行比较,来挖掘邮轮舱位水平上总需求的分布规律.研究表明,正态分布和伽玛分布能较好地拟合邮轮舱位总需求的分布特征.其次,以正态分布为例,基于EMSR-a和EMSR-b两种舱位分配算法,以某次航行的实际数据为基准需求,对高总需求和低总需求下分别考虑(1)高价格舱位高需求和(2)低价格舱位高需求的4种需求状况进行了模拟,并对两种存量分配方法的分配效果进行了比较.结果表明,两种方法分配效果的优劣取决于实际的需求状况.
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邮轮旅游季节性特征: 基于北美市场的实证分析 [J].Cruise tourism seasonality: An empirical study on the North American Market [J]. |
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邮轮航线设置的基本特征与规划要素研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2015.11.015 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
国际邮轮旅游业的实践表明,密集的航线布局是邮轮产业发展的重要保障。目前,我国邮轮产业刚刚起步,航线设置还比较单一。文章从产业整体布局的角度出发,对邮轮航线规划的基本特征与核心要素进行研究。首先,结合北美地区35 000余个航次的航线数据以及文献分析与专家访谈等方法,对世界邮轮航线的基本特征与主要规划要素进行讨论;其次,对邮轮航线规划中的核心要素——港口服务属性与岸上产品配备特点进行深入分析,其中,在港口服务属性与功能配备方面,基于全球20个著名邮轮港口的详细数据;在邮轮岸上产品配备方面,基于全球近300个邮轮港口近2000条邮轮航线的270余种岸上产品的数据。最后,针对我国邮轮航线规划存在的主要问题提出了航线开发与拓展的对策与建议。
Basic characteristics and key elements of cruise itinerary planning [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2015.11.015 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
国际邮轮旅游业的实践表明,密集的航线布局是邮轮产业发展的重要保障。目前,我国邮轮产业刚刚起步,航线设置还比较单一。文章从产业整体布局的角度出发,对邮轮航线规划的基本特征与核心要素进行研究。首先,结合北美地区35 000余个航次的航线数据以及文献分析与专家访谈等方法,对世界邮轮航线的基本特征与主要规划要素进行讨论;其次,对邮轮航线规划中的核心要素——港口服务属性与岸上产品配备特点进行深入分析,其中,在港口服务属性与功能配备方面,基于全球20个著名邮轮港口的详细数据;在邮轮岸上产品配备方面,基于全球近300个邮轮港口近2000条邮轮航线的270余种岸上产品的数据。最后,针对我国邮轮航线规划存在的主要问题提出了航线开发与拓展的对策与建议。
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旅游地可持续发展研究综述 [J].A review on sustainable development for tourist destination [J]. |
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基于元胞自动机的邮轮码头应急疏散策略研究 [J].Research of emergency evacuation strategy based on cellular automata for cruise terminal [J]. |
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旅游开发的居民满意度驱动因素: 以广西阳朔县为例 [J].Driving factors of resident satisfaction with tourism development: A case study of Yangshuo in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region [J]. |
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湿地生态旅游资源开发的社区参与模式探讨: 以江苏海滨湿地保护区为例 [J].Community participation patterns in ecotourism development of wetland nature reserve in Jiangsu Province: A case study in the Jiangsu Wetland Nature Reserve [J]. |
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循环经济模式下国内外邮轮旅游污染防治及其海南启示 [J].The pollution control of domestic and foreign cruise tourism in the mode of circular economy and its implications to Hainan [J]. |
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基于云模型的国际邮轮港口竞争力评价与比较研究 [J].Evaluation and comparative study on competitiveness of international cruise ports based on cloud model [J]. |
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基于全生命周期评价的邮轮环境污染控制机理及其应对策略 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-6392.2010.06.019 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
目前基于海洋资源的邮轮旅游业 得到了快速的发展。邮轮旅游给大量的游客提供了利用海洋资源的机会,但邮轮活动以及与之相关的基础设施的建设给海洋和旅游目的地造成了环境影响。邮轮产业 可持续发展依赖于口岸城市采取严格的环境管理制度以及邮轮经营者对邮轮环境污染控制所采取的措施。探讨的运用生命周期评价方法对邮轮的环境污染加以分析和 控制不失为一项有效的环境管理措施。
Cruise environmental pollution control mechanism and tactics based on life-cycle assessment [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-6392.2010.06.019 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
目前基于海洋资源的邮轮旅游业 得到了快速的发展。邮轮旅游给大量的游客提供了利用海洋资源的机会,但邮轮活动以及与之相关的基础设施的建设给海洋和旅游目的地造成了环境影响。邮轮产业 可持续发展依赖于口岸城市采取严格的环境管理制度以及邮轮经营者对邮轮环境污染控制所采取的措施。探讨的运用生命周期评价方法对邮轮的环境污染加以分析和 控制不失为一项有效的环境管理措施。
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环境伦理观与可持续旅游行为研究进展 [J].https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
环境伦理观是促进人与环境和谐发展的核心理念,对可持续旅游行为具有积极的指导作用。本文通过对中英文主流数据库期刊的文献回顾,对环境伦理观的理论内涵、影响因素以及环境伦理观对可持续旅游行为的影响进行系统梳理。结果表明：环境伦理观的概念体系主要包括环境道德、环境情感和环境信念三要素。现有研究往往不区分环境道德和环境信念,对环境情感的度量往往缺乏统一标准,导致研究结果不一致。对环境伦理观具有直接影响力的是价值观理论,社会文化因素、宗教因素、教育水平、媒体和广告影响、政策、国内和国际移民经历等因素也有一定的作用。西方对环境伦理观与可持续旅游行为进行了大量的定性和定量研究,而国内以概念性研究居多,既有研究中往往仅关注旅游中的环境行为,对可持续旅游行为关注较少,缺乏对这一特定行为的概念界定,因此,未来应在以下几个方面加强研究：（1）对环境伦理观理论内涵的度量;（2）对环境伦理观影响因素的研究;（3）对可持续旅游行为的界定和度量;（4）文化因素对于环境伦理观和可持续旅游行为的影响;（5）运用定量和定性研究方法探求环境伦理观对可持续旅游行为的作用机理和影响,为促进生态文明建设提供理论支撑和实证研究。
A review of environmental ethics and sustainable tourism behavior [J].https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
环境伦理观是促进人与环境和谐发展的核心理念,对可持续旅游行为具有积极的指导作用。本文通过对中英文主流数据库期刊的文献回顾,对环境伦理观的理论内涵、影响因素以及环境伦理观对可持续旅游行为的影响进行系统梳理。结果表明：环境伦理观的概念体系主要包括环境道德、环境情感和环境信念三要素。现有研究往往不区分环境道德和环境信念,对环境情感的度量往往缺乏统一标准,导致研究结果不一致。对环境伦理观具有直接影响力的是价值观理论,社会文化因素、宗教因素、教育水平、媒体和广告影响、政策、国内和国际移民经历等因素也有一定的作用。西方对环境伦理观与可持续旅游行为进行了大量的定性和定量研究,而国内以概念性研究居多,既有研究中往往仅关注旅游中的环境行为,对可持续旅游行为关注较少,缺乏对这一特定行为的概念界定,因此,未来应在以下几个方面加强研究：（1）对环境伦理观理论内涵的度量;（2）对环境伦理观影响因素的研究;（3）对可持续旅游行为的界定和度量;（4）文化因素对于环境伦理观和可持续旅游行为的影响;（5）运用定量和定性研究方法探求环境伦理观对可持续旅游行为的作用机理和影响,为促进生态文明建设提供理论支撑和实证研究。
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海滨旅游地居民对旅游影响的感知: 海南省海口市及三亚市实证研究 [J].Residents' perception of tourism impacts in coast resorts: The case study of Haikou and Sanya Cities, Hainan Province [J]. |
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农户参与旅游决策行为结构模型及应用 [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2005.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
通过国内外相关文献分析及定性研究确定构成农户参与旅游开发决策行为的可能影响因子,即涉及农户对社区旅游地开发基础认知、旅游地归属感、旅游开发影响感知、农户参与能力、农户参与态度、农户参与决策、旅游地开发偏好、参与旅游行为等8个结构变量。运用结构方程模型方法,建立了旅游地开发过程中农户参与决策行为结构概念模型,提出了6个假设。并与实践结合,对模型进行实证分析和验证,借助于结构方程专用软件(Lisrel),对提出的概念模型加以拟合,确定了各要素之间的路径系数,验证了6个假设,提出的6个假设基本正确。结果表明:①农户的旅游开发基础认知对其旅游参与态度有正向影响,但不十分显著(0.35);②农户的地方认
Peasants participation in tourism decision-making behavior structural model and its application [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2005.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
通过国内外相关文献分析及定性研究确定构成农户参与旅游开发决策行为的可能影响因子,即涉及农户对社区旅游地开发基础认知、旅游地归属感、旅游开发影响感知、农户参与能力、农户参与态度、农户参与决策、旅游地开发偏好、参与旅游行为等8个结构变量。运用结构方程模型方法,建立了旅游地开发过程中农户参与决策行为结构概念模型,提出了6个假设。并与实践结合,对模型进行实证分析和验证,借助于结构方程专用软件(Lisrel),对提出的概念模型加以拟合,确定了各要素之间的路径系数,验证了6个假设,提出的6个假设基本正确。结果表明:①农户的旅游开发基础认知对其旅游参与态度有正向影响,但不十分显著(0.35);②农户的地方认
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国外旅游生态效率研究综述 [J].
旅游生态效率由生态效率概念衍生而来,是一个描述旅游单位经济产出环境影响大小的变量。提升旅游生态效率可以获得双向效应,也就是在创造新的市场就业机会的同时,降低成本和减少环境影响。国外旅游生态效率相关研究成果集中于以下几个方面:生态效率的概念、特征与理论模型;旅游生态效率理论的演化与应用;旅游生态效率提升的规划及措施;旅游者对生态效率战略的感知与态度;旅游生态效率规划实施的动力与阻力等。国外旅游生态效率研究具有研究范围和视角比较宽泛、研究方法手段丰富多样、研究案例较为典型、研究结论实践应用价值较大等特征。深化旅游生态效率的理论研究和案例分析,不仅为旅游可持续发展研究开拓了一个新方向,也为低碳旅游、旅游碳交易、旅游碳税等政策的制定提供了科学依据,具有重要的理论创新和实践应用价值。
Review on overseas tourism eco-efficiency studies [J].
旅游生态效率由生态效率概念衍生而来,是一个描述旅游单位经济产出环境影响大小的变量。提升旅游生态效率可以获得双向效应,也就是在创造新的市场就业机会的同时,降低成本和减少环境影响。国外旅游生态效率相关研究成果集中于以下几个方面:生态效率的概念、特征与理论模型;旅游生态效率理论的演化与应用;旅游生态效率提升的规划及措施;旅游者对生态效率战略的感知与态度;旅游生态效率规划实施的动力与阻力等。国外旅游生态效率研究具有研究范围和视角比较宽泛、研究方法手段丰富多样、研究案例较为典型、研究结论实践应用价值较大等特征。深化旅游生态效率的理论研究和案例分析,不仅为旅游可持续发展研究开拓了一个新方向,也为低碳旅游、旅游碳交易、旅游碳税等政策的制定提供了科学依据,具有重要的理论创新和实践应用价值。
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“负责任旅游”概念的起源与发展 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-575X.2006.06.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
负责任旅游是近年一些国家大力提倡的旅游发展观,而我国对这个概念还比较陌生.本文主要从负责任旅游这一概念提出的背景出发,探讨了不同个人和旅游组织从各自角度出发对负责任旅游概念的解释,然后对负责任旅游概念的发展以及不同阶段的特征进行了概括和总结.
A study of the origin and evolution of responsible tourism [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-575X.2006.06.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
负责任旅游是近年一些国家大力提倡的旅游发展观,而我国对这个概念还比较陌生.本文主要从负责任旅游这一概念提出的背景出发,探讨了不同个人和旅游组织从各自角度出发对负责任旅游概念的解释,然后对负责任旅游概念的发展以及不同阶段的特征进行了概括和总结.
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基于负责任旅游的政府管理行为 [J].Government management behavior in responsible tourism [J]. |
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国外邮轮旅游市场研究综述 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.02.017 URL 摘要
邮轮旅游在我国属于一种新兴的旅游方式,近年来受到产业界和理论界的普遍关注。但目前国内对邮轮旅游市场的研究比较匮乏,所能提供的有关邮轮旅游市场需求特征的信息很少。文章全面检索了国外邮轮旅游市场研究的相关文献,并进行了文献统计分析、主题内容分析。研究发现:国外该领域研究文献的大量出现是在2000年之后,全部为实证研究,研究内容包括邮轮游客基本特征和市场细分、邮轮旅游动机、邮轮旅游决策及影响因素、邮轮旅游体验质量和满意度等方面。在此基础上,文章还就未来国内邮轮旅游市场研究和业界实践提出了若干建议。
A study review on overseas cruise tourism market [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2012.02.017 URL 摘要
邮轮旅游在我国属于一种新兴的旅游方式,近年来受到产业界和理论界的普遍关注。但目前国内对邮轮旅游市场的研究比较匮乏,所能提供的有关邮轮旅游市场需求特征的信息很少。文章全面检索了国外邮轮旅游市场研究的相关文献,并进行了文献统计分析、主题内容分析。研究发现:国外该领域研究文献的大量出现是在2000年之后,全部为实证研究,研究内容包括邮轮游客基本特征和市场细分、邮轮旅游动机、邮轮旅游决策及影响因素、邮轮旅游体验质量和满意度等方面。在此基础上,文章还就未来国内邮轮旅游市场研究和业界实践提出了若干建议。
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中国生态旅游研究进展与展望 [J].https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.06.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
自1992年生态旅游概念引入中国以来,经历了理论介绍到本土化探索的过程,并不断推动中国生态旅游的实践发展。本文以1992-2015年间公开发表的中国生态旅游研究成果为基础,采用系统综述方法,对筛选的1493篇中文核心期刊文献进行梳理与总结,从生态旅游基础理论、生态旅游资源、生态旅游市场、生态旅游开发、生态旅游作用与影响、生态旅游管理与政策等6个方面对国内生态旅游研究展开述评,最后展望了今后中国生态旅游研究需关注的8个方面研究议题。
Progresses and prospects of ecotourism research in China [J].https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.06.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
自1992年生态旅游概念引入中国以来,经历了理论介绍到本土化探索的过程,并不断推动中国生态旅游的实践发展。本文以1992-2015年间公开发表的中国生态旅游研究成果为基础,采用系统综述方法,对筛选的1493篇中文核心期刊文献进行梳理与总结,从生态旅游基础理论、生态旅游资源、生态旅游市场、生态旅游开发、生态旅游作用与影响、生态旅游管理与政策等6个方面对国内生态旅游研究展开述评,最后展望了今后中国生态旅游研究需关注的8个方面研究议题。
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Relative risk assessment of cruise ships biosolids disposal alternatives [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.07.006 URL PMID: 21821268 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A relative risk assessment of biosolids disposal alternatives for cruise ships is presented in this paper. The area of study encompasses islands and marine waters of the Caribbean Sea. The objective was to evaluate relative health and ecological risks of (a) dewatering/incineration, (b) landing the solids for disposal, considering that in some countries land-disposed solids might be discharged in the near-shore environment untreated, and (c) deep ocean disposal. Input to the Bayesian assessment consisted of professional judgment based on available literature and modeling information, data on constituent concentrations in cruise ship biosolids, and simulations of constituent concentrations in Caribbean waters assuming ocean disposal. Results indicate that health and ecological risks associated with land disposal and shallow ocean disposal are higher than those of the deep ocean disposal and incineration. For incineration, predicted ecological impacts were lower relative to deep ocean disposal before considering potential impacts of carbon emissions.
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Caribbean cruise tourism: Issues, challenges and sustainability [J].URL 摘要
Caribbean Cruise Tourism: Issues, Challenges and Sustainability
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Corporate sustainability reporting index and baseline data for the cruise industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.03.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Sustainability policies and corporate reports demonstrate the impacts cruise companies acknowledge as their responsibility, and the actions put in place to address them. This paper develops a corporate social responsibility index based on the Global Reporting Initiative, with industry specific additions including labor and human rights, health and safety, and environmental and economic aspects. Companies disclose more management than performance data, which is typical of early stages of development. Companies disclosing less information focus on soft indicators which are easy to mimic and demonstrate posturing. Items disclosed tend to be marginal to the core of the business, have a positive economic impact or pre-empt sector regulation. Reports echo the voice of the corporations and not the demands of stakeholders. Institutional isomorphism has not influenced a homogenization in reporting, with only the largest firms reporting at this stage.
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Maritime tourism and terrorism: Customer perceptions of the potential terrorist threat to cruise shipping [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2012.743973 URL 摘要
Maritime terrorism is a neglected area of research in tourism, particularly the use of scenario planning to understand potential threats to the cruise industry. Since the events of 9/11, terrorism, and the threat of terrorism, has become a major concern within the tourism industry. This article analyses tourist perception of perceived terrorist threats given that many ships are American owned. ...
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A comparison of residents' perceptions in two cruise ports in the Mediterranean Sea [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.1915 URL 摘要
This paper examines residents' perceptions of a wide set of externalities exerted by the development of cruise tourism. The research involved data collection in two ports located in the two largest Mediterranean islands, Sicily and Sardinia, during the summer peak of the cruise season 2011. These two cruise destinations are especially interesting as they are characterized by a distinct life cycle. The empirical findings show that the two groups of residents have statistically equal perceptions on cruise activity in their destination. A correspondence analysis shows that residents have an overall positive attitude on the development of cruise tourism with respect to social, cultural and economic impacts. Nevertheless, they also feel that cruise activity has a negative impact, especially on the environment. Heterogeneity in occupation is explicitly taken into account. These findings provide directions for local policy-makers. Copyright 漏 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Residents' attitudes and perceptions towards cruise tourism development: A case study of Cartagena de Indias (Colombia) [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358411415153 URL 摘要
Cruise tourism is growing faster than any other sector of the tourism industry, producing different impacts on destinations. From the social and economic viewpoint, the interactions between the different actors of the exchange process - cruise passengers, crew, residents, and producers of the tourism products - can bring both positive and negative consequences. The aim of this paper is to analy...
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Cruise tourism: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts [J].https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLTM.2010.029585 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Cruise tourism generates an estimated $18 billion a year in passenger expenditure and has been the fastest growing sector of the travel industry for the past tw
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Economic impacts of cruise tourism: The case of Costa Rica [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2010.9687106 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper provides an overview of the different impacts of cruise tourism in Costa Rica. The purpose of the study is to provide information, based on primary investigation collected by the Costa Rican Tourism Institute during the period 2006-2008, to help the decision making process and the establishment of policies and strategies for cruise ship tourism. We focus on cruise passenger demograph...
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The impact of cruise ship generated waste on home ports and ports of call: A study of Southampton [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2007.03.002 URL 摘要
Cruise ships represent less than 1% of the global merchant fleet yet it has been estimated that they are responsible for 25% of all waste generated by merchant vessels. This volume of waste produces pressures on the environment, particularly with respect to ship-generated waste disposal at home ports and ports of call. Southampton, home port for both Cunard and P&O, and a port of call for Royal Caribbean Cruises, is the focus of this study. This paper investigates current waste management and disposal options for cruise ship generated waste and the associated impacts of this waste for ports. It is concluded that all cruise vessels should vigorously pursue a waste reduction strategy and for ports to provide adequate recycling, reduction and re-use facilities for cruise ship generated waste, optimising use of local facilities whenever possible.
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Challenges and prospects of valuation: Cruise ship pollution case [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.01.033 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Negative externalities and natural resource valuations play an important role in the debate and analysis of sustainable development. However, as yet, they have not been included extensively in tourism research or planning. As a result limited progress has been made to improve environmental management and address resource management challenges. This paper seeks to stimulate the discussion over the advantages, disadvantages, failures and successes of selected economic and development discourses. Valuation methodologies are discussed and placed within a pollution valuation impact model to identify opportunities to assess the impact of pollution and the value of natural capital in the tourism context. Cruise tourism is used to demonstrate the model due to its rapid growth and the potential for intense pollution outputs. It is considered in the context of a developing and transition state, one which sees tourism as a panacea to the problem of accessing international currency. By employing cross disciplinary research and applying valuation logic the paper aims to contribute to the decision making process in tourism.
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Ecotoxicological risk assessment of antifouling emissions in a cruise ship port [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.072 URL 摘要
Worldwide growth of cruise ship tourism is constantly increasing marine environmental contamination risks, frequently neglected by the tourism practices. Paradoxically, environmental degradation ultimately decreases the quality of resources tourism is dependent upon. Vessels antifouling-related contamination is one of the most serious threats posed upon marine ecosystems. We propose here an interdisciplinary triangulation to evaluate antifouling-pollution environmental risks within the frame of the Dubrovnik Port case study. Heavy metal environmental burden was calculated based on the cruiser ships anchoring data. Pollution impact was confirmed by three independent ecotoxicological studies conducted recently in the same area: heavy metals sediment analyses, antifouling related imposex occurrence in banded murex Hexaplex trunculus and biomonitoring study on Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis . Antifouling-pollution cost was estimated by applying the actual sea bottom remediation methods in order to present the monetary value of pollution prevention that could be achieved through the non-toxic antifouling strategies. Implementation of these is considered one of the prerequisites for environmentally sustainable cruise tourism.
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Cruise tourism environmental impacts: The perspective from the Adriatic Sea [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.09.008 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Cruise tourism is a growing sector of the travel and recreation industry. Due to it mobility it is often one of the first forms of tourism to relocate to new host environments and it is encouraged by transition economies looking to increase foreign revenue. Yet the environmental impacts of cruise vessels on the host environment can be significant, and due to the growth of this sector, it is likely to increase. The Mediterranean is a growing market for cruise tourism. The absence of any international coordination of the industry at the region level leaves it open to exploitation, especially considering the lack of effective pollution control mechanisms in most States. The Adriatic Sea, and Croatia in particular, is of growing interest to the cruise industry. As such Croatia can serve as an example of the strategies and practices that will be implemented as the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean States become more stable and accessible. This work examines cruise ship emissions and impacts, points to existing environmental management options, and opens up the discussion on coastal tourism development as a panacea to the current economic crisis in the region.
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Tourists' accounts of responsible tourism [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2014.03.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Responsible tourism’ has become an established area of tourism research and practice and is typically understood as a broad set of tourist interactions that engage with and benefit local communities and minimize negative social and environmental impacts. Extant research however has adopted a largely top down approach to understanding responsible tourism that has marginalized the voices of tourists. This study investigates tourists’ own accounts of responsible tourism experiences, finding that these intersect with but also deviate substantially away from established conceptions of the phenomenon. We show that tourists’ accounts can be delineated according to the extent to which they display inner- versus outer-directed goals, and the degree of involvement in responsible tourism as a cultural identity.
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Exploring definitions and practices of responsible tourism in Kinabalu National Park, Sabah, Malaysia [J].https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-2169/2015.06.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Responsible TourismThe literature records a variety of definitions for responsible tourism. According to the Government of South Africa Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (1996, p. 11), responsible tourism is defined as "tourism that promotes responsibility to the environment through its sustainable use; responsibility to involve local communities in the tourism industry; responsibility for the safety and security of visitors and responsible government, employees, employers, unions, and local communities". Moreover, responsible tourism is also simply defined by the Tourism Department of the City of Cape Town (2009, p. 4) as "tourism that creates better places for people to live in, and better places to visit". Spenceley, Relly, Keyser, Warmeant, McKenzie, Mataboge, ..., and Seif (2002, p. 8) defined that responsible tourism "is about providing better holiday experiences for guests and good business opportunities for tourism enterprises while enabling local communities to enjoy a better quality of life through increased socio-economic benefits and improved natural resource management". The Centre of Responsible Travel (2009, p. 17) defined responsible tourism as "tourism that maximises the benefits to the local communities, minimises negative social or environmental impacts, and helps local people conserve fragile cultures and habitats or species", whereas Chan (2010) viewed it as being grounded in environmental and social principles and good practices consisting of strong ethical values.From the definition of responsible tourism given by the scholars above, three main elements were found to be important, which include: building a better place for local community; enhancing the tourists' experiences in destinations; and creating better business opportunities for tourism enterprises. Goodwin (2012) defined responsible tourism as a form of tourism that takes responsibility, while responding and taking action to address the social, economic, and environmental issues of sustainability that arise in a destination (Goodwin, Font, & Aldrigui, 2012). Responsible tourism emerged from a question frequently asked by researchers, which is, "who should be responsible for mitigating impact?" (Miller, 2001; Sin, 2010; Budeanu, 2005; Frey & George, 2010).A declaration on responsible tourism in destination was agreed by 280 delegates including inbound and outbound tour operators, national park management, provincial conservation authorities, tourism professionals, tourism authorities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other tourism stakeholders, from 20 countries at the Cape Town Conference in 2002. The Cape Town Declaration called upon tourism enterprises and trade associations in the tourism sector to adopt a responsible approach, to commit special responsible practices, and to report progress in a transparent and auditable way; the declaration also made the commitment to "... work with others to take responsibility for achieving the economic, social, and environmental components of responsible and sustainable tourism" (Tourism Department of the City of Cape Town, 2002, p. 5). The Practices of Responsible Tourism by Government and Tour CompaniesAzam and Sarker (2011) suggested two governance mechanisms of responsible tourism through institutional governance and private initiative. Institutional governance refers to the utilisation of state action and certification or eco-label. The proactive involvement of both the public and private sectors is needed to step towards sustainability regardless of whether the country is developed or developing (Azam & Sarker, 2011). Impartial policies are needed to take place in order to minimise the negative impacts. Institutional strategies may include the specifics of the tourism facilitation, investment initiatives, development research, marketing research, priority tourism development areas, marketing and promotional strategies in various niche markets, air transport, cruise strategies, tourism education, and training strategy to achieve the policy's goals (Telfer & Richard, 200
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Health externalities of ship air pollution at port: Piraeus port case study [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.08.010 URL 摘要
This paper is employing the well-known methodology of impact pathway approach to assess the external costs in human health from ship air pollution at port areas. The passenger port of Piraeus, Greece is the scenery of the study. Piraeus port is in the vicinity of the greater Athens metropolitan area where almost half of the country 檚 population lives. Hence, this port is the central hub of the Greek coastal passenger ship system which connects the islands of the Aegean Sea with land and is characterized by heavy ship traffic. The case study presented in this paper assesses the annual external cost in human health from air emissions produced by all passenger ships and cruise ships calling the port of Piraeus. Health cost from ships at port has been estimated at both local (Athens metropolitan area) and regional level (entire territory of Greece). Results show that higher costs occur at the local level. The dominant pollutants creating this cost are particulate matter (PM 2.5 , and PM 10 ). Overall, the results indicate that the health impact of Piraeus 檚 passenger port emissions is not negligible; however the cost of PM 10 is considerably lower than the corresponded cost deriving from the land based industries of the Athens regional area for which comparison has been available.
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Fact and Fiction [EB/OL]. , 2012-10-16. |
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CLIA annual state of the industry press conference & media marketplace [EB/OL]. . |
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Report on Operational Incidents 2009 to 2013 [EB/OL]. . |
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CLIA Cruise Industry Outlook [EB/OL]. . |
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Governance of Arctic expedition cruise ships in a time of rapid environmental and economic change [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.12.005 URL 摘要
Changes in seasonal climate patterns and decreasing sea ice cover have facilitated an increase in navigable waters throughout Arctic Canada and resulted in the urgent need for new approaches to ocean, coastal, and vessel management. Increased access has resulted in a significant expansion of Arctic shipping activity over the past decade with one of the fastest growing sectors being expedition cruising. This paper presents an assessment of the existing marine regulations and governance structures that manage the cruise sector in Arctic Canada and provides a critical evaluation of its effectiveness considering recent and rapid growth. Using a variety of sources, including interviews with community residents and key informant stakeholders, analysis of changing ship volumes over the past decade, and an inventory of institutional governance for the sector, the major governance challenges for the industry were identified. Also identified are potential strategies for mitigating these challenges. Results of the analysis raise concerns that there is no central authority to govern the growth of the industry, no specific sector or operator management plan, and no site guidelines for highly visited shore locations (other than in protected areas). Instead, governance occurs within the complex multi-jurisdictional regulatory frameworks that exist for all shipping in the region. The paper concludes that under current conditions there are significant barriers to supporting development of this sector while avoiding human, environmental and security problems in the near-to medium-term future.
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Identifying and evaluating adaptation strategies for cruise tourism in Arctic Canada [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1125358 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The cruise tourism industry in Arctic Canada has recently grown rapidly with stable numbers now emerging. While there are many socio-economic opportunities associated with growth, climate change, and environmental, technical and cultural risks also present significant management challenges. To enhance understanding of these opportunities and risks, this study adopted a policy Delphi approach to identify and evaluate potential adaptation strategies to aid decision-makers and policy-makers managing cruise tourism development and its associated impacts. Over 500 ideas were identified. These were distilled down to 65 potential adaptation options, which were evaluated for priority and feasibility by key stakeholders including local residents, tourism operators, and policy-makers. The majority of recommendations were evaluated as of high priority and most options were perceived to be somewhat affordable and implementable. Key needs included disaster management plans, updated technology and ship navigation systems, improved marine resource mapping, and the development of a code of conduct for cruise tourists to guide visitor behaviour and promote a sustainable approach. The research represents the first empirical study to identify and evaluate adaptation strategies for cruise tourism development in Arctic Canada and outlines current priorities, opportunities, and challenges associated with managing socio-economic change in Arctic Canada in sustainable ways.鉴定和评估加拿大北极区游轮旅游的适应性策略近期，加拿大北极区游轮旅游产业发展迅速，并开始具有了一定的规模。虽然该产业的发展带了许多社会经济的机会，但与此同时造成的气候变化、环境、科技和文化的危机也对产业管理发起了挑战。为加强对这些机遇和风险的认识，本文采取了决策叠慧法来鉴定和评估潜在的适应性策略，并以此帮助政策决策者谋划游轮旅游的发展和解决其带来的影响。超过500个想法建议被鉴定。这些想法被细分成65个潜在的适应选项，包括当地居民，旅游经营者和政策决策人在内的关键利益相关者评估了这些选项的重要性和可行性。大多数建议被鉴定为具有高优先权的，大部分选项则被认为是实惠且可行的。目前的主要需求包括灾难管理的计划，船舶导航系统和技术的创新，航海资源测绘的改良和一项能引导游客行为及创立可持续方式的游轮游客行为守则。本研究代表第一实证研究鉴定和评估了加拿大北极区游轮旅游发展的适应性策略，以可持续的方法概括了当前与该地区社会经济管理改变息息相关的重点任务，机遇以及挑战。
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Island cruise tourism development: A resident's perspective in the context of Italy [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.854751 URL 摘要
ABSTRACT Most studies that examine tourism impacts and community attitudes have been carried out from the perspective of the tourism sector as a whole, with very few papers focusing on specific types of tourism and/or analysing tourists' preferences for specific types of tourism segment. This paper discusses some pertinent issues in relation to cruise tourism development and community attitudes in a port of call cruise destination located in the island of Sicily (Southern Italy). Specifically, this study was carried out using a quota random sample of 1500 responses, which is representative of the population of Messina at 1% level. Findings show that residents express an overall positive attitude towards cruise tourism development even if it is not the most preferred when compared to other types of tourism (cultural tourism, sport tourism, and sun and sea tourism). Further, they highlight that significant differences based on socio-economic and demographic characteristics (age, gender, reliance on cruise-related employment, level of education, geographical proximity to tourist areas and port, length of residency and frequency of interaction with tourists) exist in residents' perceptions and attitudes towards cruise tourism development. Implications for policy-makers are discussed and suggestions for further research are given.
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Antarctic cruise tourism: the paradoxes of ambassadorship, “last chance tourism” and greenhouse gas emissions [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09669581003653534 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper examines a paradoxical issue in tourism's adaptation to climate change and emissions reduction demands. Operators increasingly take tourists to destinations threatened by climate change, with Antarctica and other polar regions as favourites and cruise ship and aircraft as main transport modes. The selling point is to see a destination before it disappears, a form of last chance tourism. This has been claimed to increase the environmental awareness of tourists and make them 渁mbassadors for conservation and the visited destination. Antarctic cruise ship passengers tripled from 2000 to 2007. The paper finds that high levels of greenhouse gas emissions are created by cruise ship tourists in general, and especially high levels for those visiting the Antarctic, up to approximately eight times higher per capita and per day than average international tourism trips. A survey found no evidence for the hypothesis that the trips develop greater environmental awareness, change attitudes or encourage more sustainable future travel choices. Of the Antarctic cruise passengers surveyed, 59% felt that their travel did not impact on climate change; fewer than 7% had or might offset their emissions. Alternative opportunities for visitation to glacial/polar destinations that comply with the desire to reduce future emissions are discussed.
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A content analysis of ecotourism definitions [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500108667896 URL 摘要
This research sought to better understand the concept of ecotourism through an examination of 85 definitions of the term (chiefly from the perspective of 20 variables), using a content analysis methodology. The variables most frequently cited in the definitions include: reference to where ecotourism occurs, e.g. natural areas; conservation; culture; benefits to locals; and education. From the p...
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Responsible tourism management: The missing link between business owners' attitudes and behaviour in the Cape Town tourism industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.06.017 URL 摘要
The global threat of climate change, diminishing natural resources and significant socio-economic inequalities is forcing companies and individuals to evaluate the impact they are having on the natural, social and economic environments. This trend has led to an increased availability and demand for socially, environmentally and economically responsible products. The tourism industry relies heavily on the sustained beauty and hospitality of the places and communities it operates in and has come under pressure to manage its negative and positive impacts. Change in the industry has, however, been limited. This paper investigates the current attitudes and perceptions of tourism business owners in Cape Town towards responsible tourism management (RTM) practices. Cape Town as an internationally acclaimed top tourism destination needs to urgently address its low levels of responsible tourism evidence. Survey data of 244 tourism businesses were used to statistically test what factors are causing the low levels of RTM practices in the Cape Town tourism industry. Findings suggest that despite general positive attitudes towards RTM, businesses are not investing time and money into changing management practices. This is a common emerging market phenomenon where resource constraints negatively impact the relationship between what businesses would like to do and what actually gets done. Factors such as the perceived cost of RTM, a highly competitive environment and a perceived lack of government support are further negatively influencing this relationship. Recommendations are made as to how the costs of implementing RTM can be reduced and what channels should be implemented to facilitate change.
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A study of impacts: Cruise tourism and the South West of England [J].https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v20n03_05 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This study draws upon research carried out in 2003, which had the primary purpose of examining the perceived social impacts associated with increased levels of cruise tourism for a major port of call in the South West of England. A survey approach was employed focusing on the town of Falmouth in Cornwall. Data were collected from residents using email and face-to-face street surveys. The results suggest that there is a predominantly positive view of cruise tourism in Falmouth, in respect of perceived impacts. In addition, there is clear recognition within the research population that growth has resulted in an increase in job opportunities, produced financial benefits and led to the development of increased tourist attractions and facilities. There was little to no evidence in the results of negative impacts, including such events as increased levels of crime and overcrowding that are often associated with increased tourism to a destination. The results provide interesting prompts for further research.
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Ethical and responsible tourism: Consumer trends in the UK [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/135676670300900306 URL 摘要
Responsible tourism is emerging as a significant market trend in the UK as wider consumer market trends towards lifestyle marketing and ethical consumption spread to tourism. This paper reviews recent survey evidence about consumer attitudes towards the responsible and ethical aspects of the tourism they consume, and places this in the context of campaigns by Voluntary Service Overseas and Tear...
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Carbon emissions from international cruise ship passengers’ travel to and from New Zealand [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.12.050 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Greenhouse gas emissions from international transport contribute to anthropogenic global warming, yet these emissions are not liable under the Kyoto Protocol. International attention is being given to quantifying such emissions. This paper presents the results of research into international cruise ship journeys to and from New Zealand. CO
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Investigating the sustainability of cruise tourism: A case study of Key West [J].https://doi.org/10.2167/jost716.0 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This qualitative research examines cruise ship tourism through a case study of Key West, Florida, exploring its perceived benefits and drawbacks. It outlines the growth of the industry, the issues raised by that growth, and uses the land-use tourism model developed by Vera Rebollo and Ivars Baidal (2003) to probe those issues. The results illustrate how mature cruise tourism destinations such a...
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Environmentally sustainable cruise tourism: a reality check [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(02)00008-8 URL 摘要
Cruise tourism continues to be a major international growth area. In terms of achieving sustainable tourism it is, therefore, a sub-sector within which socio-economic, cultural and environmental considerations need to be continually analysed, addressed and monitored. The environmental impacts of cruise tourism are categorised in this paper and potential strategies that can be employed by both cruise line operators and cruise tourism destinations are explored. Secondary evidence of action by both parties suggests that the industry is taking a number of belated positive steps. However, decision-makers in cruise tourism destinations, particularly those outside North America, need to work closely with operators to facilitate both integrated waste management and intergenerational and intra-societal equity rather than merely accept the prospect of short-term economic gain.
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| [65] |
Providing ecotourism excursions for cruise passengers [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580608668590 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper argues that destinations can do more to offer coastal ecotourism experiences for cruise passengers, and in doing so they may secure a more sustainable product. An analysis of shore-side excursions currently available to P&O passengers in the Caribbean is presented. Excursions are classified against textbook tourism-type definitions. Time constraints imposed by cruise operators and an...
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| [66] |
Chemical contamination of a coral reef by the grounding of a cruise ship in Bermuda [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.02.018 URL PMID: 17467745 [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Bulk metal analyses of surficial sediments collected around the Norwegian Crown cruise ship grounding site in Bermuda indicated significant but localized contamination of reef sediments by copper and zinc, caused by the stripping of the tri-butyltin (TBT)-free antifouling (AF) paint (Intersmooth 460) from the underside of the hull. Highest copper and zinc values were found in heavily compacted and red-pigmented sediments inside the impact scar and were comparable to levels found close to slip ways of local boat yards where AF paints from hull stripping and cleaning processes are washed into the sea. The re-distribution of AF contaminated sediments by storms and deposition on nearby reefs constitutes a significant ecological risk that could delay recovery processes and reduce the effectiveness of remediation efforts. Whilst the ecotoxicological effects of AF paint particles interspersed with sediment is unknown, and in need of further study, it is argued that the significance of AF paint contamination of grounding sites has been overlooked.
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| [67] |
A stress and coping framework for understanding resident responses to tourism development [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.01.002 URL 摘要
Stress is one of many impacts on host community residents that can result from tourism development. Unmitigated stress can lead to a variety of negative health and behavioral outcomes. Factors like personality, social support, stress appraisal, and coping play a role in how stress affects individuals. This research conceptualizes the psychologically based stress and coping process in a tourism development context. Measurements of each element in the process are tested for construct validity in the context of cruise tourism development in Jamaica. Construct validity was supported for measures of social support and secondary stress appraisal. A measurement of coping was found to have a different factor structure in a tourism context than theoretically predicted. Valid measurement is critical to future research examining relationships within this psychological process and ultimately understanding how individuals' emotional and psychological quality of life is affected by tourism development.
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| [68] |
Using a macroalgal δ15N bioassay to detect cruise ship waste water effluent inputs [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.023 URL PMID: 21683418 [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Green macroalgae bioassays were used to determine if the δ15N signature of cruise ship waste water effluent (CSWWE) could be detected in a small harbor. Opportunistic green macroalgae (Ulva spp.) were collected, cultured under nutrient depleted conditions and characterized with regard to N content and δ15N. Samples of algae were used in controlled incubations to evaluate the direction of isotope shift from exposure to CSWWE. Algae samples exposed to CSWWE exhibited an increase of 1-2.5‰ in δ15N values indicating that the CSWWE had an enriched isotope signature. In contrast, algae samples exposed to field conditions exhibited a significant decrease in the observed δ15N indicating that a light N source was used. Isotopically light, riverine nitrogen derived from N2-fixing trees in the watershed may be a N source utilized by algae. These experiments indicate that the δ15N CSWWE signature was not detectable under the CSWWE loading conditions of this experiment.
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| [69] |
Keeping the cruise tourism responsible: The challenge for the ports to maintain high self esteem [C]//
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Responsible cruise tourism: Issues of cruise tourism and sustainability [J].https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.107 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Cruise tourism is the fastest growing segment of leisure tourism. With its growth has come concern about the impact of cruise tourism on coastal and marine environments, local economies, and on the sociocultural nature of port communities. These three areas are key elements in analyses focused on responsible tourism, and form a critical base from which to consider strategies to ensure the sustainable development of cruise tourism. The goal of this article is to illustrate how a responsible tourism lens measures the impact of cruise tourism and, with its focus on the perceptions of host communities, more effectively addresses grassroots concerns. Case examples are used to identify and describe challenges faced by governments, communities, and the cruise industry. Analysis of these issues and challenges gives direction for how cruise tourism can grow in ways that are both sustainable and responsible.
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Belly full, purse closed: Cruise line passengers' expenditures [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2013.02.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
78 Cruise passengers expenditures are lower than the expenditures of other tourists. 78 Few high spenders and more low spenders among cruise tourists. 78 Cruise tourists spend less on almost every category of consumption. 78 Cruise tourists over estimate their expenditures more than other tourists.
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| [72] |
Stakeholders, the natural environment and the future of Caribbean cruise tourism [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.471 URL 摘要
Given the sheer complexity of effectively managing the web of potential stakeholders in any tourism development it is argued that for the future of Caribbean cruise tourism, the task is compounded by several key issues that warrant discussion. These include the economic dependence of the Caribbean region on tourism, the inequity of power relations between the various stakeholder groups, and the...
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Environmental and economic implications of alternative cruise ship pathways in Bermuda [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2016.08.015 URL 摘要
Berkeley Electronic Press Selected Works
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The significance of dilution in evaluating possible impacts of wastewater discharges from large cruise ships [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.10.021 URL PMID: 16406006 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In response to public concerns about discharges from large cruise ships, Alaska's Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) sampled numerous effluents in the summer of 2000. The data showed that basic marine sanitation device (MSD) technology for black water (sewage) was not performing as expected. Untreated gray water had high levels of conventional pollutants and surprisingly high levels of bacteria. Both black water and gray water discharges sometimes exceeded state water quality standards for toxicants. The state convened a Science Advisory Panel (the Panel) to evaluate impacts associated with cruise ship wastewater discharges. The effluent data received wide media coverage and increased public concerns. Consequently, legislative decisions were made at the State and Federal level, and regulations were imposed before the Panel completed its evaluation. The Panel demonstrated that following the rapid dilution from moving cruise ships, the effluent data from the Summer of 2000 would not have exceeded water quality standards, and environmental effects were not expected.
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| [75] |
Golden goose or Trojan horse? Cruise ship tourism in Pacific development [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2008.00369.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Pacific governments seeking to expand national economies are increasingly looking to tourism to provide revenues. At the same time, companies that operate cruise ships are searching for new destinations for increasing numbers of larger, faster ships which they are launching to cater for steadily increasing demand for cruises. The Pacific region appeals to both companies and passengers as a crui...
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| [76] |
Evaluating the social cost of cruise ships air emissions in major ports of Greece [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2015.02.014 URL 摘要
Detailed NO x , SO 2 and PM 2.5 emissions have been estimated for cruise ships in the five busiest Greek ports (i.e. Piraeus, Santorini, Mykonos, Corfu and Katakolo) for year 2013. The emissions were analyzed in terms of gas species, seasonality and activity. The total in-port inventory of cruise shipping accounted to 2742.702tons: with NO x being dominant (1887.502tons), followed by SO 2 and PM 2.5 (760.9 and 94.302tons respectively). Emissions during hotelling corresponded to 88.5% of total and have significantly outweighed those produced during ships’ maneuvering activities (11.5% of total). Seasonality was found to play a major role, as summer emissions and associated impacts were significantly augmented. The anticipated health impacts of ship emissions can reach to 24.302million or to 5.3 per passenger proving the necessity of control of the emissions produced by cruise ships in port cities or policy and measures towards a more efficient cruise industry.
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| [77] |
The effects of cruise ship tourism in coastal heritage cities: A case study of Charleston, South Carolina [J].https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2187653 URL 摘要
Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to explore the introduction of cruise ship tourism into historic urban centers, and the mitigation policies that can be implemented to encourage sustainable development of this relationship. Design/methodology/approach - The paper focuses on the unique aspects of cruise tourism that differentiate it from other forms of mass tourism. Using the specific exam...
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| [78] |
Trends in world and extended-length cruising (1985-2002) [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2003.09.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper documents recent activity of the world and extended-length cruise markets—a neglected area of research within the scholarly literature. A comparative empirical analysis is provided that identifies and reviews the status and trends of these two markets. It also tests and supports three broad hypotheses regarding cruise ship attributes and cruise characteristics. Additional findings of the research are reported regarding change.
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| [79] |
The socioeconomic impacts of cruise tourism: A case study of Croatian destinations [J].https://doi.org/10.3727/154427308787716767 URL 摘要
The aim of this research was to estimate the economic, promotional, and sociocultural impact of cruise tourism to Croatian destinations. Due to the anticipated growth of cruise tourism worldwide and, especially, in the Mediterranean, measuring its impacts is becoming an increasingly important issue in terms of appropriate planning of cruising tourism on the local level. The study reported here included the survey of cruise ship passengers and crew members in order to estimate their on-land expenditure, survey of hotel guests aimed to estimate the impact of cruise experience on repeat, land-based, visits, and survey of local residents aimed to estimate the sociocultural impact of cruise ship tourism. The study found that, in terms of the passenger- and crew-related expenditure, cruise passengers were relatively good spenders. They spent between 34 and 82 Euros, depending on the port of call. In terms of the value of cruising upon the return visit to a destination, the survey revealed that only between 1.5% and 3% of cruise passengers who visited Croatian destinations during 2000 2006 returned in 2006 as land-based visitors. In destinations with frequent cruise ship calls the negative impact on destination attractiveness is already present. Land-based tourists disliked seeing cruisers/cruise passengers in destination (23%), and were complaining of the noise generated by the cruise ships. Finally, residents also reported the adverse impact of cruisers and their passengers relating mostly to the excessive crowdedness created in the short time. However, they still supported cruise tourism, albeit advocating an urgent need to improve the traffic and visitor flow management. With an understanding of the economic value of the cruise industry and the range of the impact that it creates on land-based tourists and residents' community, the results are very important for drafting the strategic direction for cruise tourism development already under way in Croatia.
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Sustainable tourism: A marketing perspective [M]. |
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Understanding the causes of recent cruise ship mishaps and disasters [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2014.12.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
There is little academic research on the causes of cruise line mishaps. Merchant vessel mishaps, however, have been greatly investigated. The goal of this research is to contribute to the understanding of the nature of mishaps in the current cruise industry by evaluating 580 mishap incidents from 1989 to 2013 through a two-stage measurement design. This novel application of this methodology may provide a new insight into mishap evaluation research. Under this method, an evaluation of what happened during a reported mishap is done. Then, the incident report data are used to evaluate and classify the cause of the mishap. This classification may reveal what factors contribute to cruise ship mishaps and start to lay a foundation of operator preparedness.
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| [82] |
Coastal tourism and 'Dutch disease' in a small island economy [J].https://doi.org/10.5367/000000007779784452 URL 摘要
Using the embryonic 'Dutch disease' literature on tourism, this paper examines the economy-wide effects of an inbound tourism boom on a small open island economy. It illustrates a range of new findings not present in traditional tourism economics literature. This paper also addresses the complexities that surround the economic evaluation of the net effect of tourism growth on the host community. An important result obtained here is that increased inbound tourism may lead to net welfare losses when tourism products are intensive users of coastal land. Thus, this paper provides a warning to researchers and practitioners of the need to evaluate both the tourism sector's overall impacts on the host economy and its net effect on the community when considering its expansion.
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| [83] |
Impact of cruise ship emissions in Victoria, BC, Canada [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.029 URL 摘要
Characterization of the effects of cruise ship emissions on local air quality is scarce. Our objective was to investigate community level concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM ), nitrogen dioxide (NO ) and sulphur dioxide (SO ) associated with cruise ships in James Bay, Victoria, British Columbia (BC), Canada. Data obtained over four years (2005-2008) at the nearest air quality network site located 3.5 km from the study area, a CALPUFF modeling exercise (2007), and continuous measurements taken in the James Bay community over a three-month period during the 2009 cruise ship season were examined. Concentrations of PM and nitrogen oxide (NO) were elevated on weekends with ships present with winds from the direction of the terminal to the monitoring station. SO displayed the greatest impact from the presence of cruise ships in the area. Network data showed peaks in hourly SO when ships were in port during all years. The CALPUFF modeling analysis found predicted 24-hour SO levels to exceed World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines of 20 g m for approximately 3% of 24-hour periods, with a maximum 24-hour concentration in the community of 41 g m ; however, the CALPUFF model underestimated concentrations when predicted and measured concentrations were compared at the network site. Continuous monitoring at the location in the community predicted to experience highest SO concentrations measured a maximum 24-hour concentration of 122 g m and 16% of 24-hour periods were above the WHO standard. The 10-minute concentrations of SO reached up to 599 g m and exceeded the WHO 10-minute SO guideline (500 g m ) for 0.03% of 10-minute periods. No exceedences of BC Provincial or Canadian guidelines or standards were observed.
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| [84] |
Evaluation of emergency air evacuation of critically ill patients from cruise ships [J].https://doi.org/10.2310/7060.2001.23971 URL PMID: 11726292 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract BACKGROUND: The study objectives were to assess the ship physician's diagnostic accuracy in making the decision to air evacuate critically ill patients from cruise ships, to determine the outcome of these patients, and the overall benefit of air evacuation. METHODS: From October 1999 to May 2000, we performed a prospective study of critically ill patients coming from cruise ships in the Caribbean and transported to our institution by air ambulance. Demographics, initial diagnosis, and treatment on board were collected by the triage officer at the time of the cruise physician's first call. In route complications and flight team composition were obtained from the air ambulance monitoring log. Patients were followed-up in the hospital for complications, outcome, and final diagnosis. RESULTS: A consecutive series of 104 patients were considered for analysis. There were 65 men and 39 women (mean age: 68.7 years). Cruise physician's diagnosis was correct in more than 90% of the cases. Internal medicine and surgical conditions represented 80.8% and 19.2% of the cases respectively, falling mainly into three categories: cardiac (34.6%), neurological (20.2%), and digestive (14%). Two cardiac arrests and 1 ventricular fibrillation were successfully resuscitated and 5 of 15 myocardial infarctions received thrombolytic therapy on board. Air transfers were warranted in 96.1% of the cases and physician presence in the flight was considered appropriate in 97.6%. In route complications and mortality rate were 5.8% and 2.9% respectively, related to serious cardiac events. Among the 98 hospitalized patients, 10 patients developed new complications and 5 died. The overall mortality rate was 7.7%. CONCLUSION: The cruise industry appears off to a good start in the medical treatment of passengers needing air evacuation to a land based medical facility. There is room for improvement and adoption of American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP) and International Council of Cruise Lines (ICCL) Health Care Guidelines are meaningful first steps. Analysis of Caribbean medical facilities and implementation of active telemedicine conferencing represent alternatives to air evacuation that need to be studied.
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| [85] |
The geography of cruises: itineraries, not destinations [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.11.011 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The cruise industry is a highly concentrated business in terms of players and markets. Vessel deployment strategies and itinerary design by cruise operators are primordial and are affected by market and operational considerations. This paper focuses on capacity deployment and itineraries in two major cruise markets: the Caribbean and the Mediterranean. We argue that the cruise industry sells itineraries, not destinations, implying a level of flexibility in the selection of ports of call, but still bound to important operational considerations. The paper also reveals that the two cruise markets are not functioning independently but are interconnected in an operational manner, particularly through the repositioning of vessel units to cope with variations in seasonal demand among the regional markets.
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| [86] |
Source apportionment of PM10 in the Western Mediterranean based on observations from a cruise ship [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.09.015 URL 摘要
Two intensive PM10 sampling campaigns were performed in the summers of 2009 and 2010 on the ship Costa Pacifica during cruises in the Western Mediterranean. Samples, mainly collected on an hourly basis, were analysed with different techniques (Particle Induced X-Ray Emission, PIXE; Energy Dispersive - X Ray Fluorescence, ED-XRF; Ion Chromatography, IC; Thermo-optical analysis) to retrieve the PM10 composition and its time pattern. The data were used for obtaining information about the sources of aerosol, with a focus on ship emissions, through apportionment using chemical marker compounds, correlation analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) receptor modelling. For the campaign in 2010, 66% of the aerosol sulphate was found to be anthropogenic, only minor contributions of dust and sea salt sulphate were observed while the biogenic contribution, estimated based on the measurements of MSA, was found to be more important (26%), but influenced by large uncertainties. V and Ni were found to be suitable tracers of ship emissions during the campaigns. Four sources of aerosol were resolved by the PMF analysis; the source having the largest impact on PM10, BC and sulphate was identified as a mixed source, comprising emissions from ships. The correlations between sulphate and V and Ni showed the influence of ship emissions on sulphate in marine air masses. For the leg Palma 揟uniscrossing a main ship route, the correlations between aerosol sulphate and V and Ni were particularly strong ( r 2 =0.9 for both elements).
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| [87] |
Cruise tourism and residents in Arctic Canada: Development of a resident attitude typology [J].https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.95 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The Canadian Arctic represents an emerging market in the rapidly evolving polar cruise sector. Since 1984 when cruises began in this region, cruise ship activity has been sporadic, but in 2006 the number of cruises to Nunavut doubled from 11 to 22. This elevated level of growth has persisted with ice strengthened cruise vessels conducting between 23 and 26 separate cruises through Arctic Canada each year from 2007 to 2010. With a warming climate some suggest this trajectory of growth will continue as sea ice diminishes and passages open up. Despite this growth little is known about this burgeoning sector from the perspectives of local residents. Through two community case studies local attitudes toward cruise tourism are positioned in a resident attitude typology. In Cambridge Bay, where cruise tourism is just emerging, resident attitudes were found to gravitate toward the passive-favourable areas of the typology. By contrast, in Pond Inlet, which is one of the most visited cruise destinations in Nunavut, attitudes were more varied with some individuals expressing degrees of resistance. The article suggests that if local people are to become engaged participants in the development of cruise tourism in Nunavut, then it is critical that resident attitudes and aspirations are articulated, respected and acted upon.
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| [88] |
The cruise industry in China: Efforts, progress and challenges [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.05.009 URL 摘要
The cruise industry has evolved considerably and in recent years emerged to become one of the most rapidly developing segments of the global tourism industry, with millions of passengers cruising each year. On a global basis, the cruising sector is overwhelmed by North America. During recent years above average growth rates are reported in emerging cruise markets in the Asia Pacific region. As one of the core elements of the Asian cruise market, China is undergoing rapid growth in terms of both cruise ship visits and cruise tourists. However, limited research has been undertaken in regard to growth of cruising industry in China. The purpose of this article is to report current development of the cruise industry in mainland China. First, we briefly provide an overview of the worldwide cruise industry. Then, we summarize the history and the growth of the cruising sector in China; report characteristics of Chinese cruise passengers and compare them with others; highlight information on geographical distribution, berthing capacity and cruise business performance of each cruise port along China's coastlines; and introduce various cruise policy documents issued by Chinese governments. Finally, we discuss some issues, challenges and relevant managerial implications for developing this niche form of tourism in this country.
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| [89] |
Marketing research and revenue optimization for the cruise industry: A concise review [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.11.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper presents a concise review of the cruise industry mainly from marketing research and revenue optimization prospects. In recent years, the cruise industry has experienced an exciting growth. However, as one of the fastest growing and most profitable categories in the entire leisure market, this industry has hardly received any research attention. Given the limited academic articles, th...
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| [90] |
Geographic limits to global labor market flexibility: The human resources paradox of the cruise industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2011.06.006 URL 摘要
The cruise industry enjoys arguably the most flexible and globalized of all labor markets. Yet, in an apparent paradox, cruise lines face a potential labor shortage, despite the fact that the bulk of their labor is sourced from the Global South where a large labor surplus would seemingly make recruitment a simple process. This paper examines this paradox in greater detail with a focus on the te...
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| [91] |
Product and service delivery satisfaction among North American cruise passengers [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(97)00107-6 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Although researchers have, during the past decade, become increasingly interested in customer satisfaction and service quality issues, very little of the research has been devoted to the tourist industry. The cruise line industry, which is among the fastest growing sectors of the leisure market, has hardly received any research attention. This paper discusses the importance of the cruise product and service delivery within the context of some of the unique characteristics of the cruise line industry, and presents the results of an exploratory study which examined passengers' satisfaction with a number of cruise product and service delivery components. The results of the study show that, overall, passengers' expectations were met or exceeded but there were key product and service delivery areas which provided cruise ship guests with the most satisfaction.
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| [92] |
Should cruise ports market ecotourism? A comparative analysis of passenger spending expectations within the panama canal watershed [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.1965 URL 摘要
This study examined the expected spending patterns of cruise ship passengers as they debarked ships at ports within the Panama Canal Watershed. Results suggest that targeting marketing efforts toward ecotourism opportunities may increase long‐term ecological and economic benefits to port communities and local businesses. Most respondents were interested in ecotourism‐related activities in the Panama Canal Zone and nearby coastal areas. Furthermore, the ecotourism‐related market segments expected to spend significantly more money in port than conventional tourists. The growing ecotourism market represents an important opportunity for the cruise industry to partner with local ecotourism operators, enhancing profitability while simultaneously supporting sustainable development. Copyright 08 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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| [93] |
Room occupancies: cruise lines out-do the hotels [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2004.05.005 URL 摘要
The cruise industry, which is essentially a North American phenomenon, is the most successful and fastest growing sector of the tourism industry, carrying nearly 8 million North American passengers in 2003 and achieving an 8.4% annual growth rate since 1980. Yet, there is a dearth of published literature on it. This paper seeks to describe how cruise lines go about managing their cabin inventor...
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Bermuda׳s balancing act: The economic dependence of cruise and air tourism on healthy coral reefs [J]. |
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Global service supply chains: An empirical study of current practices and challenges of a cruise line corporation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.05.008 URL 摘要
This research paper examines solutions to the complexity of global cruise ship supply chain management through a field study of a large Florida-based global cruise company's practices in re-supplying ships globally. This field study focuses on the key characteristics of a cruise ship supply chain and the best practices in managing that global service supply chain. The methodology used for this ...
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| [96] |
Ethical tourism: An opportunity for competitive advantage [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/135676670200800204 URL 摘要
This paper explores the concept of ethical tourism, examines consumer demand for ethical holidays, and determines the essential attributes for ethical operators in this specialist field. A survey of independent operators (n=26) in the UK shows that they had a clear understanding of ethical tourism and were aware of the importance of all 4 elements (i.e., use of locally owned organizations in de...
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