郭琪
, 贺灿飞
GUO Qi, HE Canfei
收稿日期: 2017-06-13
修回日期: 2017-12-2
网络出版日期: 2018-02-28
版权声明: 2018 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：郭琪(1987-),女,辽宁兴城人,博士,讲师,研究方向为区域经济和产业地理,E-mail: guoqi0610@yeah.net。
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摘要
技术关联是现阶段演化经济地理学的重要概念,对演化经济地理学的发展和现实经济增长路径的探索具有重要意义。本文在演化经济地理学的背景下,探讨技术关联的概念和测度方法,从静态和动态2个视角探究技术关联影响产品演化的微观作用机制,并在国家、区域和企业等不同尺度上梳理了相关研究成果,绝大多数研究证明了产品演化路径显著依赖技术关联,即遵循路径依赖过程。近年来一些研究成果发现,有些区域通过向技术不相关产品进行演化从而实现了路径突破,并对其原因进行剖析,发现金融危机与扶持政策等外生力量和地方环境与制度等内生变量都会导致路径突破。中国发展路径的特殊性为西方演化经济地理学研究提供很好的案例,同时也为中国演化经济地理学的发展创造重要契机。
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Abstract
Technological relatedness as a key concept at present in evolutionary economic geography (EEG) is of great significance for the development of EEG and studies on economic growth path. This article explores the definition and measurement of technological relatedness and its micro-mechanism, and reviews the literature on how technological relatedness influences product evolution on different scales, including country, regional, and firm level product evolution. Even though the mechanisms differ slightly by scale, most studies confirm the existence of path dependence. In other words, product evolution path is dependent of technological relatedness. However, several studies find that some countries, regions, and firms do not follow their existing technological relatedness but break the path. They investigate the source of path breaking, finding that path breaking derives from some internal or external forces. China's special development path is not only a supplement for Western evolutionary economic geography theories but also an important opportunity for the development of the emerging Chinese evolutionary economic geography.
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21世纪以来,经济地理学者吸收演化经济学的经典理论与分析框架,逐渐提出演化经济地理理论,将时间与空间要素内在地联系起来,从历史角度研究经济活动空间分布的渐进演化机制(刘志高等, 2005)。演化经济地理学涌现了大量的理论与经验研究成果,包括产业集群的形成与演化(刘志高等, 2011; 王周杨等, 2013)、企业网络演化(Hagedoorn, 2002)、制度与企业惯例的协同演化(Nelson, 1994; Schamp, 2010)以及区域产业衍生与区域弹性(Frenken, Boschma, 2010)等,其中,技术关联与产业或产品演化路径的研究是近年来演化经济地理学发展最为迅速的分支之一,引起了学术界的广泛讨论,其重要贡献是通过重新探讨知识溢出和知识创造的路径挑战了集聚外部性的经典理论。
经典集聚经济理论认为企业间的地理邻近有利于知识溢出和创新,但对于集聚外部性到底来源于同一行业(马歇尔—阿罗—罗默外部性,简称MAR外部性)还是不同行业(雅克布斯外部性),始终没有定论(Beaudry et al, 2009),这可能与知识溢出的本质和范围有关。演化经济地理学通过引入技术关联(Technological Relatedness)和相关多样性(Related Variety)的概念,打破了MAR外部性和雅克布斯外部性的两分法(Frenken, Van Oort et al, 2007; 刘志高等, 2016)。已有研究认为,不同行业之间存在认知距离,知识不会在任意2个行业间无障碍地溢出,认知距离太远的企业之间存在沟通障碍,认知距离太近则不能给对方带来新的信息或知识从而容易产生路径锁定,只有认知距离处于合适区间的时候才能促进产业之间的学习过程和知识溢出(Nooteboom, 2000),因此集聚外部性既需要行业多样性又需要技术相关联。
技术关联是现阶段演化经济地理学的重要概念,是认知距离在实证研究的进一步发展。21世纪初,Boschma、Frenken、Rigby等学者打破了城市经济学、经济地理学以及创新研究从地理邻近角度对经济增长的传统解释,从认知距离角度强调技术关联对区域内生增长路径、产业演化和创新路径的解释力,不仅对演化经济地理学的快速发展有重要贡献,而且对知识溢出和集聚经济的研究也有十分重要的意义。中国正处在经济转型的关键时期,梳理和总结演化经济地理学关于技术关联与产品演化路径的研究成果,探究技术关联如何通过产品创新和演化来开拓新的增长路径,对中国经济地理学科的发展和现实经济增长路径的探索都有重要的借鉴意义。
本文试图在演化经济地理学的视角下,厘清技术关联的概念及其对产品演化的微观作用机制,进而在不同尺度上对相关实证研究进行梳理,并探讨技术关联对中国产品演化的影响,最后提出演化经济地理视角下技术关联研究的未来方向。
在经济地理学领域,认知距离与地理距离相对应,是指异质性个体之间在知识和能力方面的邻近程度(Cantner et al, 2010)。认知隐藏在个人的大脑中或组织的记忆里,其内涵丰富且很难测量。技术关联是认知邻近在产品层面的表现,是实证研究中用来验证认知邻近的重要概念。技术关联通常被定义为2个产业或产品之间在生产技术、管理机制、生产要素、基础设施等方面的相似性(Hidalgo et al, 2007; Neffke et al, 2011; Boschma et al, 2013)。按照这一定义,技术关联中的“技术”是一个更广义的概念,更接近在理论中探讨的认知邻近,也是Hidalgo共存分析法背后的理论支撑,在测度上更容易实现(Hidalgo et al, 2007; 引自Boschma et al, 2013),后文将具体阐述。
技术关联之所以重要,可以从2个方面来理解。首先,从知识溢出角度看,认知距离与技术关联挑战了传统的知识外部性研究成果。大量研究已经证明,知识外部性导致经济活动在空间上的集聚(Jaffe et al, 1993),从而促进经济增长。传统的知识外部性理论认为企业在地理上邻近,管理者或员工通过面对面交流相互学习,从而实现知识溢出,但最近创新理论和演化经济地理学发现,即使产业或企业在地理上邻近,也不一定能产生知识溢出。认知距离对知识溢出也有一定限制作用,因为不同的产业或企业在生产技术、管理经验等方面拥有不同的知识积累,认知距离的远近直接影响知识溢出的效果(Nooteboom, 2000)。自Boschma(2005)开始,越来越多的研究证实了企业之间的认知邻近可能比地理邻近对知识溢出的影响更重要。其次,从技术创新角度看,产业或企业的技术创新不是随机的,而是受到认知邻近的约束。一方面,技术创新往往需要花费大量沉没成本,同时面临较高风险,企业为了节约成本和降低风险,一般会选择整合现有的技术、知识、资产、生产能力等资源,向认知距离较近的产品进行演化,即使不考虑成本和风险,企业想要在认知距离较远的产品上有突破,其本身的成功率也较低;另一方面,创新不是凭空的,通常是相似知识或技术的重新组合,认知邻近恰恰为这种创新创造了机会(Nooteboom et al, 2007)。
技术关联概念的出现及其对认知邻近的强调,突破了传统的知识外部性理论和创新理论对产品演化路径的解释。技术关联中的“关联”不仅可在横向空间层面来理解,即知识溢出过程中关联所起的作用,也可从纵向时间层面来阐释,即技术创新过程中创新主体对历史路径的依赖,因此技术关联为演化经济地理学所强调的时间与空间的统一也作出重要贡献。
20世纪末之前,演化经济地理学主要停留在理论分析与案例研究,技术关联概念的出现及其测度方法的创新,使历史维度可作为一个变量进入计量经济学模型,大大促进了演化经济地理学实证研究的发展。产品技术关联的测度方法对于演化经济地理学者来说始终是一个挑战,这个难题被逐步解决使技术关联的研究成果迅速增加。总体来说,在文献中有3种方法测度产业或产品间的技术关联(Neffke et al, 2013; Essletzbichler, 2015)。
第一种方法基于标准行业分类(Standardized Industrial Classification, SIC),将产业划分为不同等级、相互嵌套的系统,也就是标准行业分类的“位数”,不同的位数代表不同的等级,如果2个产品属于共同的上一级分类,就定义为技术关联,否则定义为技术不相关;此方法由Caves(1981)开发,由于操作简单而被广泛使用(Frenken, Van Oort et al, 2007; Boschma et al, 2009),同时也因为缺乏理论依据而受严厉批判,因为它忽略了不在同一行业大类的产品由于投入—产出联系或跨行业的知识溢出也可能存在技术相关(Essletzbichler, 2015)。
第二种方法关注产业生产过程,通过计算不同产业所使用资源的相似性来衡量技术关联。Lemelin(1982)、Fan等(2000)和Guo等(2016)使用投入产出表计算不同行业在投入结构上的相似程度①(①公式如下：
第三种方法是基于共存分析来测度2种产品的技术关联,尤其是国家层面的共存分析是目前应用最广泛的方法。Hidalgo等(2007)假设如果2种产品高频率地被同一国家生产,说明2种产品共享相似的制度、基础设施和生产要素组合②(①公式如下：
与城市相比,企业才是最微观的生产主体,将共存分析的尺度从国家或地区细化到企业层面,技术关联的准确性和严谨性将得到很大程度的提高。如果2种产品高概率地被同一生产企业生产,说明这2种产品对企业的生产技术、劳动力资本组合、劳动力素质等有相似的要求,这种在企业层面用共存分析的思路计算技术关联的方法最早被Teece等(1994)提出和使用。与之前的方法相比虽然更严谨和准确,但该方法也存在一些问题：一方面,无法处理条件概率的不对称性,而且只计算了2个产业在同一企业共存的频数而非概率,频数受到行业规模(行业内企业数量)等影响较大;另一方面,企业—产品层面的数据难以获得,使企业层面的共存分析方法目前没有被广泛采用。如果未来能够综合Hidalgo等(2007)和Teece等(1994)的优点,在企业层面计算2种产品被同时生产的条件概率,将是技术关联测度方法的重要进步。
企业是产品演化的微观主体,无论是宏观层面还是中观层面的产品演化,归根结底都来源于企业的产品演化。根据演化经济地理理论,企业的产品演化一般遵循路径依赖过程,即企业更容易生产与过去产品有技术关联的新产品,因为技术关联意味着新产品与旧产品有相似的生产要素投入比例、共享生产设备及管理经验,导致新产品一旦开始生产就享受着技术与信息的外部性和企业规模经济或范围经济,从而降低生产成本,提高市场竞争力和存活率。企业资源观点(Resource-based View, RBV)是企业产品演化的重要理论视角,起源于Penrose(1959),Teece在此基础上,对企业产品的关联演化路径作了更深入的理论探讨(Teece, 1982; Teece et al, 1994)。
RBV是围绕着“多余资源(Excess Resources)”展开的。因为资源的不可分割性,企业内通常都拥有“多余资源”,即未被现有生产活动充分利用的剩余资源,多余资源不仅可以是生产设备、配送系统等硬件资源,也可以是劳动力、生产技术、管理制度等软件资源,还有些学者认为多余资源可以是企业在干中学过程所累积的产品与市场知识。多余资源是RBV的核心概念,RBV认为新古典理论无法解释企业产品演化行为,新古典理论中企业面对无限技术和市场,具有无限理性和完全信息,交易成本为零的假设使企业没有理由采用多产品结构,因为市场的零交易成本使企业通过市场合同可以共享任何投入和服务,即使对于不可分割资源,企业也可以通过租赁等形式与市场上其他企业共享“多余资源”(Teece, 1980)。
除了不可分割性,企业资源通常还具有可转换性。过去的生产与销售活动使企业逐步成长为一系列技术、资产、组织惯例和能力等资源的集合,是企业的核心竞争力,这些资源很少只适用于生产某一种产品,通常也可以用于其他类型产品的生产活动,这就是企业资源在不同产品之间的可转换性。当企业向新产品演化时,如完全重新购置物质与人力等各种资本需要付出较大成本,但如充分利用企业已有综合生产能力,将大大降低生产范围改变的机会成本(Penrose, 1959)。这种综合生产能力适用于多种类型产品的生产(例如奶制品技术可以同时生产奶酪和黄油,农用机械技术可以同时生产拖拉机和收割机),是企业向关联产品演化的重要基础。
其次,组织学习是日积月累的,现在所学的是基于之前的知识储备,重新学习需要付出转换的机会成本。知识邻近是学习发生的前提,学习过程既可以是无意识的,也可以是有意识的(Breschi et al, 2003)。无意识的学习是因为知识外部性的存在,企业间的合作和劳动力流动都会导致知识的溢出。有意识的学习过程是指企业有目的地开发与以往技术相关的新技术,因为企业面对不确定性和信息不完全性,并不能找到利润最大化的选择,因此企业通常是有限理性的,即开发与自己擅长领域相似的技术或产品,利用知识的相似性降低问题解决的难度和成本(Nelson et al, 1982; Dosi, 1997)。学习是一个尝试、反馈和评价的过程,这一过程深深依赖于过去的积累。管理者与技术开发者的认知局限也是企业路径依赖的原因,不仅因为技术变化和市场演化动态比较复杂,也因为这种动态的跨产业差异非常显著(Teece et al, 1994)。技术创新是组织学习的最高表现,创新过程需要来自关联领域的灵感,如果某技术的研发走入死胡同,它可从其他相关领域获得灵感,获得灵感的可能性取决于这个技术与其他领域的关联,关联多则出路多。因此,从学习的动态视角看,企业产品演化过程通常是路径依赖的,即沿着相关联的产品演化。
技术关联越来越多地被经济学家和演化经济地理学家用于解释国家、区域和企业等不同层面的产品演化规律,在不同尺度上发现技术关联对于产品演化具有显著影响。
技术关联对国家产品演化的作用之所以重要,是因为关联产品对劳动力、土地、资本、技术、制度等有相似的要求,因此国家更容易向优势产品的关联产品演化。Hidalgo等(2007)用技术关联和路径依赖解释了南北差异持续存在并在日益扩大的原因。他们采用国家层面的世界贸易数据计算产品间技术关联程度,并绘出“产品空间”,即产品关联图,然后用产品间技术关联度在空间单元加权计算出某产品与某国家的技术距离,发现新产品与国家“技术包”的距离越近,国家越容易向这种新产品进行演化。所谓技术包就是这个国家所具备的技术能力,例如在文化、制度、基础设施及其他生产条件等方面有比较优势,如果新产品所需要的生产条件与某国家所能提供的越近似,其出现的概率就越大。发达国家的优势产品位于产品空间的核心位置,更容易通过密集的产业联系而发展距离较近的产品,从而实现结构转变;而发展中国家的优势产品位于产品空间的边缘,与其他产品的距离较远,很难实现区域产品更新,以此来解释全球经济持续不平衡现象。
Hausmann等(2007)、Hidalgo(2009)进一步用产品空间研究比较优势的演化,也发现产品距离在国家或区域的产业结构演化中发挥着重要作用,即新产品与已有产品之间技术关联程度越高,企业越容易向这种新产品跳跃。例如,一个国家在出口苹果上具有比较优势,那么它所具备的条件——例如土壤、气候、地形、技术、劳动力、基础设施甚至制度和法律等——用来出口梨的可能性非常大,因为转换成本低,技术上易实现,且风险也更小。Hausmann等(2010)将这些不可进行贸易的生产要素定义为“能力”,如果这些生产要素可以无成本进行贸易,企业在任何地方都可以获得所需生产要素,新产业的出现就是随机的。但现实并非如此,基础设施、技术、人力资本、制度或法律规范等要素具有本地化特征。如果一个国家具备一个新产业所需要的大多数条件,这个新产业出现的概率就会大大提高。
路径依赖对产品演化过程的影响因国家能力不同而不同,发展中国家通常没有能力向与自己生产结构不相关的产品进行演化。国家不仅受自身生产结构的影响,也受到与其他国家关系影响,即地理邻近、政治关系和国际贸易进出口联系。依赖于这些国际网络因素实现路径突破是发展中国家摆脱贫困魔咒的途径之一(Boschma et al, 2016)。
除了国家层面,技术关联对区域层面产品演化路径的作用被更多的实证研究所证实。即使在国家内部,很多能力在区域间也很难流动,因此区域若要向新产品演化,也需要具备相关的生产能力。位于产品空间边缘的区域因为缺乏必要的链接和关联,则很难向更核心的产品演化。Boschma等(2012)将区域产业发展描述为一种由区域内已有产业衍生出关联产业的“分化过程(Branching)”。Neffke等(2011)系统研究了区域产业演化的过程,发现瑞典的区域产业演化显著遵循着路径依赖过程,即与区域生产能力有紧密技术关联的新产业更可能进入该区域;与区域技术关联越弱的产业,退出区域的可能性越大。Essletzbichler(2015)利用美国大都市区数据证明了Neffke等(2011)的结论。Boschma等(2013)不仅验证了Neffke等(201)的结论,还进一步发现区域层面的技术关联比国家层面的技术关联对西班牙区域产业演化的影响更大,说明这些技术能力跨区域流动并不容易,本地化特征更显著。
经济地理学领域有大量文献强调区域能力对于区域竞争力的重要性(Storper, 1995; Lawson, 1999; Maskell et al, 1999; Maskell, 2001)。Storper(1995)提出“非贸易相互依赖性(Untraded Interdependecies)”。例如,本地化的技术与传统,这些因素在全球化背景下对区域竞争力的作用越来越大。Maskell等(1999)提出“地方化能力(Localized Capabilities)”,是指知识、技术、制度环境等在区域或地方累积或沉淀的一系列能力总和。这些地方化能力是高度隐性的无形资产,不容易被其他区域模仿,这些能力需要长期积累,既不能在市场上买卖,也不能通过公共政策干预而被轻易设计(Gertler, 2003)。因此,区域更倾向于沿着特定的历史轨迹演化,这个过程也被演化经济地理学称为“区域路径依赖”。在实证研究中,Boschma等(2007)用英国数据、Boschma等(2012)用西班牙数据、Colombelli等(2014)用欧洲数据、Essletzbichler(2015)用美国数据,在城市或区域层面上证明了“区域路径依赖”过程的普遍存在。
企业的能力不仅包括企业层面的能力,例如生产率、规模、所有制等,更为重要的是产品层面的能力,包括生产设备、技术、熟练劳动力、研发能力等。如果说企业能力影响的是企业在市场上的进入、退出和存活概率,那么企业的产品和市场层面能力则影响企业对产品和市场的选择。产品生产是制造业企业的灵魂,所以产品层面的能力是影响企业的核心能力,它构成了企业产品演化过程的重要知识基础,使企业向技术相关的新产品进行拓展(Danneels, 2002)。前文已经从静态视角和动态视角对技术关联如何影响企业产品演化的理论进行梳理,但由于企业—产品层面的数据获取难度较大,企业层面的实证研究远不如加总层面的研究成果多。
由于数据和方法的局限,早期的研究成果一般基于SIC或投入结构相似性方法测度产业关联。有研究利用加拿大或美国的数据,发现企业倾向于向已有产业的同类或相关产业进行演化(Lemelin, 1982; MacDonald, 1985; Chang, 1996)。Breschi等(2003)用美国、意大利、法国、英国、德国和日本授予欧洲专利权的数据验证了Teece等(1994)的发现,企业不是以随机方式拓展技术与生产范围,而是围绕在知识上有关联的领域进行技术创新,所谓知识关联是指这些领域之间共享相同的知识基础、依赖共同的探索方法与科学准则。Neffke等(2013)创造性地采用劳动力在产业间的流动数据计算技术关联,进而绘制出瑞典的产业空间,发现产业间技术关联网络远比SIC标准行业分类复杂地多,证明企业不仅存在大量跨行业的产品扩展行为,同时更容易拓展到与核心领域有更强技术关联的产业。Poncet等(2015)采用Hidalgo共存分析法计算产品技术关联,首次将企业产品演化研究拓展到中国,也证明了产品关联对中国企业出口表现的正向作用,同时发现这个作用显著受到企业效率和吸收能力的影响。
路径依赖通常不是企业长期存活的保障(Neffke et al, 2014)。从长远看,经济环境不是静态的,技术和需求的变化让企业所掌握的技术逐渐被淘汰,从而使其失去原有的竞争优势(Tushman et al, 1986)。因此,RBV的研究重点不仅是企业如何向新产品演化,也包括企业怎样拥有高水平的动态能力、更新自身的核心技术(Henderson et al, 1995; Teece et al, 1997; Eisenhardt et al, 2000; Helfat et al, 2003)。企业层面技术不相关的研究十分少见,但对区域路径突破的探讨日益增多。Castaldi等(2015)发现,不相关多样性与区域突破式技术创新相关。不相关技术或服务之间知识整合很少成功,但一旦成功,这种激进创新不仅开拓出新市场和创新机会,也能为长期竞争优势的形成奠定基础。在新增长路径的研究中,新路径创造被定义为全新产业或产品的出现,而路径更新是指本地经济向不同但相似的产业发展(Isaksen et al, 2016)。为了突破路径依赖,创造新增长路径,区域不得不更依赖其他区域的知识和资源。跨国公司、企业家和政府政策都可能是导致新路径创造的因素(Dawley, 2014; Neffke et al, 2014)。
大量利用发达国家或地区的数据研究证明,无论是国家、区域还是企业通常都沿着技术关联网络进行产品演化。如果国家或区域的发展完全遵循路径依赖过程,是否意味着发展中国家或地区只能受限于自己的技术和产业基础,沿着自己的发展路径,永远没有机会追赶上发达国家或地区?答案当然是否定的。近些年来一些新兴经济体的崛起与路径依赖过程相悖,经济地理学家开始关注路径突破(Path Breaking),即区域发展路径突破了过去生产能力和技术的限制,实现了经济或产业发展的飞跃。他们发现,一些外生力量或突变,例如世界性或国家层面的技术革新(Bathelt et al, 2003)、经济危机(Meyer-Stamer, 1998)或政府刺激性发展政策(Asheim et al, 2011; Cooke, 2007),都被认为是导致区域路径突破的外生力量。
中国改革开放以来所创造的经济奇迹就是路径突破的典型案例。作为社会主义国家,中国的区域发展路径很大程度上受到了中央政府的影响,21世纪初的西部大开发、东北振兴、中部崛起等一系列区域均衡发展战略,为内陆地区的发展营造良好的政策环境,吸引企业向内陆地区转移,帮助内陆地区实现路径突破。中国在建立社会主义市场经济的同时,通过分税制改革和以经济目标为导向的官员绩效晋升体制,使中国地方政府在经济发展中也发挥着举足轻重的作用。贺灿飞等(2016)、Guo等(2017)分别用海关数据和工业普查数据,描绘出中国出口产品和制造业产品的“产品空间”,并发现中国沿海地区的产业演化路径显著依赖于过去的产业关联,而西部则实现了路径突破,向技术不关联的产业演化,其中贷款、补贴和财政支持等地方政府优惠政策起了重要作用。除了地方政策以外,市场化程度和全球化水平也是帮助区域衍生出不关联产业、创造新发展路径的重要内生力量(He et al, 2016)。Zhu等(2017)不仅发现政府支持对于区域产业发展路径突破有显著作用,还发现不断提高基础设施以及教育、R&D投入和培养开放的社会制度环境都有利于区域实现路径突破。文献虽鲜有对发展中国家的讨论,但中国作为最大的新兴经济体和转型中的社会主义国家,为演化经济地理理论与实证研究的发展提供了很好的素材,因此关于中国产业演化路径的研究对发展中国家或落后地区有更为重要的意义。
本文在演化经济地理学的背景下,探讨技术关联的概念、测度方法及其影响产品演化的作用机制,并在国家、区域和企业等不同尺度上梳理了相关研究成果,发现绝大多数文献证实产品演化路径是沿着技术关联进行的,即遵循路径依赖过程。但也有少数文献挑战了路径依赖,证明了路径突破现象的存在,并对其原因进行剖析,发现金融危机与扶持政策等外生力量和地方环境与制度等内生变量都会导致路径突破,对中国的讨论则丰富了演化经济地理学的研究,同时也给发展中国家或落后地区带来希望。
技术关联与产品演化的相关研究虽然在21世纪以后得到广泛关注,也取得了丰厚的研究成果,但仍有一些重要问题亟待进一步研究与解决。首先,演化经济地理学基于技术关联和认知邻近的视角研究产品演化路径的动态过程,但该理论的主要实证研究成果集中在国家或区域层面,缺乏微观视角的验证。区域产品演化的根本来源是企业,探讨区域产品演化的企业来源,并研究企业进入、退出和产品选择的影响因素,可以更系统全面地揭示区域演化路径的微观机制。
其次,在复杂的社会经济系统内,区域和企业等各个层面之间错综复杂、相互影响,区域不仅是企业行为的外生环境,同时企业也是区域经济增长的重要载体,已有研究就企业论企业,就区域论区域,忽视了企业与区域之间相互影响、协同共生的复杂关系,缺乏企业与区域的协同演化研究。
再次,虽然制度一直被认为是影响区域发展的重要因素(Gertler, 2010; Rodríguez-Pose, 2013),但是无论是在理论上还是实证研究中,演化经济地理学对制度的研究还远远不够。实证研究中通常把制度作为一个解释变量引入计量模型,但这种简单地线性化一方面忽略了制度内生于经济系统中,与个人、企业和地方政府之间存在交互作用;另一方面忽略了制度作用的不均衡性,会受到个人异质性和组织异质性的影响。因此,在产品演化路径的研究中,既需要强调制度对微观个体的重要作用(Hodgson, 2009),又需要关注多尺度的相互作用(MacKinnon et al, 2009; Pike et al, 2009)。
最后,演化经济地理学虽然是经济学与地理学之间的一座桥梁,但是它的开放性远不止这些,在不同的研究问题上与其他学科相互交叉、相得益彰。例如,对国家产品演化的研究与国际贸易理论相结合才能更好地勾勒出国家产品演化的理论框架,对区域产品演化的研究与区域经济学相结合才能对区域路径依赖有更深入的理解,对企业产品演化的研究只有结合企业组织理论才能揭示企业产品演化路径的内在机制。因此,演化经济地理学是一门开源的学科,开源才能使其在创立和探索阶段吸收各学科大量的优秀成果从而得到快速发展,但一门成熟的学科需要清晰的学科边界,因此经济地理学者在形成大量研究成果的同时,也应为演化经济地理学逐渐构建出相对清晰的学科边界,使其得到更稳健、长远的发展。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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地区经济发展与其生产结构紧密相联。演化经济地理学认为,地区生产结构的演化受技术关联的影响,是一个路径依赖过程;一些研究也认为产业和区域政策等因素可能创造新路径,实现路径突破。本文沿用Hidalgo等定义的贸易产品空间方法,基于2001-2013年中国31个省区市的产品贸易数据,对中国出口产品空间(Product Space)的演化路径进行探讨。结果发现:中国四大区域—东部、中部、西部和东北地区的出口产品经历了较为明显的结构转型,不同区域的转型方向与路径各异。在2001-2007年间,四大区域的出口产品空间演化受到技术关联的显著影响,体现为路径依赖的过程。在2008-2013年间,东部、中部与东北地区的产品空间演化仍受技术关联的影响,而西部地区则更多受到产业和区域政策的推动,体现了路径突破的演化过程。本文研究启示,虽然中国区域生产结构演化一定程度上受制于现有区域能力、技术和知识积累,但是区域性制度政策创新可以突破原有路径,为区域发展创造新的机会。
Evolution of export product space in China: Path-dependent or path-breaking [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201606006 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
地区经济发展与其生产结构紧密相联。演化经济地理学认为,地区生产结构的演化受技术关联的影响,是一个路径依赖过程;一些研究也认为产业和区域政策等因素可能创造新路径,实现路径突破。本文沿用Hidalgo等定义的贸易产品空间方法,基于2001-2013年中国31个省区市的产品贸易数据,对中国出口产品空间(Product Space)的演化路径进行探讨。结果发现:中国四大区域—东部、中部、西部和东北地区的出口产品经历了较为明显的结构转型,不同区域的转型方向与路径各异。在2001-2007年间,四大区域的出口产品空间演化受到技术关联的显著影响,体现为路径依赖的过程。在2008-2013年间,东部、中部与东北地区的产品空间演化仍受技术关联的影响,而西部地区则更多受到产业和区域政策的推动,体现了路径突破的演化过程。本文研究启示,虽然中国区域生产结构演化一定程度上受制于现有区域能力、技术和知识积累,但是区域性制度政策创新可以突破原有路径,为区域发展创造新的机会。
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正近年来,演化分析方法在西方经济地理学界,尤其是欧洲日益受到重视,这可能是因为演化思想为分析产业空间集中的出现和经济的空间差异提供了有益的模型和解释。一些经济学家虽然分析了产业创新和技术变化演化,但却忽视了其空间特性,这正是经济地理学者所关注的领域。经济地理学吸收演化经济学的有关养料后,分析了这些空间特性对企业竞争力和学习能力的影响,并富有成效地将本地生产系统、根植性和区域学习过程等与演化思想结合起来,用演化思想研究人类经济活动的空间现象及规律,试图在经济地理学中全面引入演化思想。
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产业集群形成的演化经济地理学研究评述 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2011.06.002 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
20 世纪80 年代以来,产业集群成为一种新的区域发展模式,受到理论工作者和政策制定者越来越多的关注。近些年来,从演化经济地理学理论学派的视角研究产业集群形成的动力、演化路径成为集群研究中的热点之一。本文首先介绍了产业集群形成的传统解释及其不足,然后回顾了演化经济地理学视角下的产业集群形成的研究进展,并总结了研究特点和主要研究思路,最后指出了在中国应用研究中需要注意的问题。
A review of the research progress on industrial cluster formation from the perspective of evolutionary economic geography [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2011.06.002 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
20 世纪80 年代以来,产业集群成为一种新的区域发展模式,受到理论工作者和政策制定者越来越多的关注。近些年来,从演化经济地理学理论学派的视角研究产业集群形成的动力、演化路径成为集群研究中的热点之一。本文首先介绍了产业集群形成的传统解释及其不足,然后回顾了演化经济地理学视角下的产业集群形成的研究进展,并总结了研究特点和主要研究思路,最后指出了在中国应用研究中需要注意的问题。
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演化经济地理学视角下的产业结构演替与分叉研究评述 [J].Review on study of industrial structure evolution and branching from the perspective of evolutionary economic geography [J]. |
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演化经济地理的理论基础及其在集群研究中的应用 [J].
演化经济地理主要研究经济景观的演化过程,其理论基础包括广义达尔文主义理论、复杂性理论与路径依赖理论。将演化经济地理理论引入集群研究,运用微观一中观一宏观多尺度相结合的方法,有助于深入理解集群演化的过程及其动力机制,打开集群内部的"黑箱"。微观视角关注企业惯例及其区位行为如何影响集群的演化过程与空间特征;中观视角关注集群的知识网络结构特征、企业间知识联系,与网络演化的过程;宏观视角关注集群系统的演化路径与动力机制,以及集群与外部环境的相互作用。然而,由于演化经济地理理论与方法目前尚处探索阶段,将其应用于集群研究中仍存在不少局限。最后,结合中国产业集群现状,提出若干研究议题,认为未来中国产业集群研究需要更加注重"演化转向"。
The theoretical fundamentals of evolutionary economic geography and its application into cluster research [J].
演化经济地理主要研究经济景观的演化过程,其理论基础包括广义达尔文主义理论、复杂性理论与路径依赖理论。将演化经济地理理论引入集群研究,运用微观一中观一宏观多尺度相结合的方法,有助于深入理解集群演化的过程及其动力机制,打开集群内部的"黑箱"。微观视角关注企业惯例及其区位行为如何影响集群的演化过程与空间特征;中观视角关注集群的知识网络结构特征、企业间知识联系,与网络演化的过程;宏观视角关注集群系统的演化路径与动力机制,以及集群与外部环境的相互作用。然而,由于演化经济地理理论与方法目前尚处探索阶段,将其应用于集群研究中仍存在不少局限。最后,结合中国产业集群现状,提出若干研究议题,认为未来中国产业集群研究需要更加注重"演化转向"。
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Constructing regional advantage: Platform policies based on related variety and differentiated knowledge bases [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2010.543126 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Asheim B. T., Boschma R. and Cooke P. Constructing regional advantage: platform policies based on related variety and differentiated knowledge bases, Regional Studies. This paper presents a regional innovation policy model based on the idea of constructing regional advantage. This policy model brings together concepts like related variety, knowledge bases and policy platforms. Related variety attaches importance to knowledge spillovers across complementary sectors. The paper categorizes knowledge into ‘analytical’ (science based), ‘synthetic’ (engineering based) and ‘symbolic’ (arts based) in nature, with different requirements of ‘virtual’ and real proximity mixes. The implications of this are traced for evolving ‘platform policies’ that facilitate economic development within and between regions in action lines appropriate to incorporate the basic principles behind related variety and differentiated knowledge bases. Asheim B. T., Boschma R. and Cooke P. 构建区域优势：基于相关多样性以及不同知识基础的平台政策， 区域研究。 本文展示了基于构建区域优势这一理念的区域创新政策模型。 本政策模型整合了相关多样性、知识基础以及政策平台等概念。相对多样性概念强调了相互补充的部门间知识外溢存在的重要性。本文按知识的性质将其分类为：分析性（以科学为基础）、先验性（以工程为基础）以及象征性（以艺术为基础），不同类别的知识对于“真实”有着不同的要求。文章考察了上述分类对于“平台政策”演进的影响，平台政策有助于整合相关多样性和不同知识基础背后的基本原则，以此辅助区域内外协同发展。 相关多样性69不同知识基础69区域创新政策69区域（衍69生）分支 Asheim B. T., Boschma R. et Cooke P. L'établissement de l'avantage régional: une plate-forme économique fondée sur la variété liée et des bases de connaissance différenciée, Regional Studies. Cet article cherche à présenter un modèle de la politique en faveur de l'innovation régionale fondée sur la notion de l'établissement de l'avantage régional. Cette politique réunit des notions telles la variété liée, les bases de connaissance, et des plates-formes économiques. La variété attache de l'importance aux retombées de connaissance à travers des secteurs complémentaires. L'article classe la connaissance, par nature, sous les rubriques ‘analytique’ (fondée sur la science), ‘synthétique’ (fondée sur l'ingénierie) et ‘symbolique’ (fondée sur les arts), y compris des besoins différents pour les mélanges de proximités ‘virtuelle’ et réelle. On en esquisse les implications quant aux ‘plates-formes économiques'qui facilitent le développement économique sur les plans intra et interrégionaux à partir des actions appropriées aux principes qui étayent la variété liée et les bases de connaissance différenciée. Variété liée69Bases de connaissance différenciée69Plate-forme69Politique en faveur de l'innovation régionale69Ramification régionale Asheim B. T., Boschma R. und Cooke P. Aufbau eines regionalen Vorteils: Plattform-Politiken auf der Grundlage von verwandter Variet01t und differenzierten Wissensbasen, Regional Studies. In diesem Beitrag wird ein Modell für regionale Innovationspolitik auf der Grundlage der Idee des Aufbaus eines regionalen Vorteils vorgestellt. In diesem politischen Modell werden unter anderem Konzepte von verwandter Variet01t, Wissensbasen und politischen Plattformen miteinander kombiniert. Bei der verwandten Variet01t wird der Wissensübertragung zwischen komplement01ren Sektoren Bedeutung beigemessen. In diesem Beitrag teilen wir Wissen je nach seiner Beschaffenheit in die Kategorien ‘analytisch' (wissenschaftsbasiert), ‘snythetisch' (technikbasiert) und ‘symbolisch' (kunstbasiert) ein, wobei an Mischungen von ‘virtueller' und echter N01he unterschiedliche Anforderungen gestellt werden. Wir untersuchen die Auswirkungen auf die Entstehung von ‘Plattform-Politiken’, die eine Wirtschaftsentwicklung innerhalb und zwischen den Regionen begünstigen, durch eine Abbildung als Aktionslinien, mit denen die Grundprinzipien der verwandten Variet01t und der differenzierten Wissensbasen angemessen berücksichtigt werden. Verwandte Variet01t69Differenzierte Wissensbasen69Plattform-Politik69Regionale Innovationspolitik69Regionale Branchenbildung Asheim B. T., Boschma R. y Cooke P. La construcción de una ventaja regional: políticas de plataforma basadas en la variedad relacionada y las bases de conocimiento diferenciado, Regional Studies. En este artículo presentamos un modelo de política de innovación regional basado en la idea de crear una ventaja regional. En este modelo político se combinan conceptos tales como la variedad relacionada, las bases de conocimiento y las plataformas políticas. La variedad relacionada resalta la importancia de los desbordamientos de conocimiento en los sectores complementarios. En este artículo describimos el conocimiento según su naturaleza en las categorías de modelo ‘analítico’ (basado en la ciencia), ‘sintético’ (basado en la ingeniería) y ‘simbólico’ (basado en las artes), con combinaciones de proximidad ‘virtuales’ y reales según diferentes requisitos. Exploramos las repercusiones en la creación de ‘políticas de plataforma’ que facilitan el desarrollo económico dentro de las regiones y entre ellas, mediante líneas de acción apropiadas con la finalidad de incorporar los principios básicos de la variedad relacionada y las bases de conocimiento diferenciado. Variedad relacionada69Bases de conocimiento diferenciado69Política de plataforma69Política de innovación regional69`Ramificación regional
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Toward a reconceptualization of regional development paths: Is Leipzig's media cluster a continuation of or a rupture with the past [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2003.tb00212.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article develops a model of regional development that is then used to examine the evolution of two media industries in Leipzig, Germany. We note that the city090005s current media cluster, centered on television/film production and interactive digital media, shares little in common with the city090005s once-premier book publishing media cluster. Treating interactive learning as the primary causal mechanism that drives economic growth and change, our conceptual framework incorporates both sectoral/technological and political crises as mechanisms that rupture regional development paths. These regional development paths are not homogeneous, but instead consist of bundles of various technological trajectories. Regions recover from crises as their actors continually rebundle local assets until they find a combination that generates growth. As a result of these crises, new opportunities for growth may arise for new and previously marginal industries. In turn, these expanding industries shape the region090005s development path.
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Who's right, Marshall or Jacobs? The localization versus urbanization debate [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2008.11.010 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A large amount of literature provides empirical evidence in support of Marshall or Jacobs theories regarding the specialization or diversity effects on the economic performance of regions. This paper surveys these scholarly contributions and summarizes their results according to their similarities and differences. The reviewed empirical work presents a diverse picture of possible conditions and circumstances under which each kind of externalities could be at work. The wide breadth of findings is generally not explained by differences in the strength of agglomeration forces across industries, countries or time periods, but by measurement and methodological issues. The levels of industrial and geographical aggregation together with the choice of performance measures, specialization and diversity indicators are the main causes for the lack of resolution in the debate. The 3-digit industrial classification seems to be the level at which MAR and Jacobs effects are undistinguishable from one another, and this is often exacerbated by a high level of geographical aggregation.
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Proximity and innovation: A critical assessment [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340052000320887 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Boschma R. A. (2005) Proximity and innovation: a critical assessment, Regional Studies39, 61-74. A key issue in economic geography is to determine the impact of geographical proximity on interactive learning and innovation. We argue that the importance of geographical proximity cannot be assessed in isolation, but should always be examined in relation to other dimensions of proximity that may provide alternative solutions to the problem of coordination. We claim that geographical proximity per se is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for learning to take place. Nevertheless, it facilitates interactive learning, most likely by strengthening the other dimensions of proximity. However, proximity may also have negative impacts on innovation due to the problem of lock-in. Accordingly, not only too little, but also too much proximity may be detrimental to interactive learning and innovation. This may be the case for all five dimensions of proximity discussed in the paper, i.e. cognitive, organizational, social, institutional and geographical proximity. Finally, the paper presents a number of mechanisms that offer, by their own, or in combination, solutions to the problems of coordination and lock-in. That is, they enhance effective coordination and control (solving the problem of too little proximity), while they prevent actors to become locked-in through ensuring openness and flexibility (solving the problem of too much proximity). Boschma R. A. (2005) La proximité et l'innovation: une évaluation, Regional Studies39, 61-74. Dans la géographie économique, la détermination de l'impact de la proximité géographique sur l'apprentissage interactif et l'innovation est capitale. Cet article affirme que l'on ne peut évaluer l'importance de la proximité géographique isolément. Plut00t, on devrait l'examiner toujours par rapport à d'autres dimensions de la proximité qui pourraient fournir des réponses alternatives à la question de la coordination. On affirme que la proximité géographique en soi ne constitue une condition ni préalable, ni suffisante, pour que l'apprentissage ait lieu. Néanmoins, elle facilite l'apprentissage interactif en renforcant, très vraisemblablement, les autres dimensions de la proximité. Cependant, il se peut que la proximité ait des retombées négatives sur l'innovation, à cause du problème de l'enfermement. Par la suite, non seulement trop peu de proximité, mais aussi trop de proximité pourraient s'avérer nuisibles à l'apprentissage interactif et à l'innovation. Cela vaudrait pour toutes les cinq dimensions de la proximité présentées dans cet article, à savoir la proximité cognitive, organisationnelle, sociale, institutionnelle et géographique. Pour finir, on présente quelques mécanismes qui fournissent, indépendamment ou conjointement, des réponses aux problèmes de la coordination et de l'enfermement. C'est-à-dire, ils font valoir la coordination et le contr00le effectifs (ce qui répond à la possibilité qu'il y ait trop peu de proximité), tout en empêchant l'enfermement des agents en assurant l'ouverture et la flexibilité (ce qui répond à la possibilité qu'il y ait trop de proximité). Boschma R. A. (2005) N01he und Innovation: eine kritische Beurteilung, Regional Studies39, 61-74. Vom Standpunkt der Wirtschaftsgeographie gesehen, spielt die Bestimmung der Auswirkung geographischer N01he auf interaktives Lernen und Innovation eine Schlüsselrolle. Der Autor vertritt die Auffassung, da08 die Bedeutung der geographischen N01he nicht isoliert werden kann, sondern immer in Bezug auf andere Dimensionen der N01he untersucht werden sollte, die alternative L02sungen für das Problem der Koordination liefern k02nnten. Der Autor behauptet, da08 geographische N01he an sich weder eine notwendige noch eine ausreichende Bedingung dafür ist, da08 Erwerb von Kenntnissen stattfindet. Nichtsdestoweniger erleichtert es interaktives Lernen, h02chstwahrscheinlich dank Festigung der anderen Dimensionen der N01he. Das Problem des Sich-gebunden-fühlens kann sich jedoch auch negativ auf Innovation auswirken. Dementsprechend kann sich nicht nur zu wenig N01he, sondern auch zu viel N01he nachteilig auf interaktives Lernen und Innovation auswirken. Dies k02nnte auf alle fünf in diesem Aufsatz besprochenen Dimensionen der N01he zutreffen, d.h. auf kognitive, organisatorische, gesellschaftliche, institutionelle und geographische N01he. Abschlie08end werden verschiedene Mechanismen vorgestellt, die selbst oder in Verbindung mit anderen, L02sungen für die Probleme der Koordination und Bindungen anbieten. Das hei08t, sie best01rken effektive Koordination und Steuerung (und l02sen damit das Problem zu geringer N01he), und verhindern zugleich, da08 Spieler in Bindungen geraten, indem sie Offenheit und Flexibilit01t garantieren (das Problem überm0108iger N01he l02sen). Boschma R. A. (2005) Proximidad e innovación: un examen crítico, Regional Studies39, 61-74. Uno de los asuntos clave dentro de lo que es la geografía económica es determinar el impacto que la proximidad geográfica tiene en el aprendizaje interactivo y en la innovación. Argumentamos que la importancia de la proximidad geográfica es un hecho que no se puede examinar de forma aislada, si no que siempre debería ser analizado en relación a otras dimensiones de proximidad que pueden ofrecer soluciones alternativas al problema de co-operación. Sostenemos que la proximidad geográfica per se no es una condición ni necesaria ni suficiente para que el aprendizaje tenga lugar. No obstante, facilita el aprendizaje interactivo, con mayor probabilidad mediante el reforzamiento de las otras dimensiones de proximidad. Sin embargo, la proximidad también puede tener impactos negativos en la innovación, debido al problema de lock-in. Así pues, no sólo una escasa proximidad, sino también una proximidad excesiva puede perjudicar el aprendizaje interactivo y la innovación. Esto puede ser el caso en lo que respecta a las cinco dimensiones de proximidad que se discuten en este artículo, esto es, proximidad cognitiva, organizacional, social, institucional y geográfica. Por último, exponemos una serie de mecanismos que ofrecen, o bien por sí solos o en combinación, soluciones a los problemas de coordinación y de lock-in. Esto es, mejoran la coordinación efectiva y el control (solucionando así el problema de escasa proximidad), mientras que previenen que los actores se vuelvan locked-in mediante la garantización de claridad y flexibilidad (solucionando así el problema de proximidad excesiva).
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Relatedness and diversification in the European Union (EU-27) and European Neighbourhood Policy countries [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0263774X15614729 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper analyzes the process of industrial diversification in the countries that were part of the European Union (EU-27) and those that were the target of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) in the period 1995–2010 by means of world trade data derived from the BACI database (elaborated UN Comtrade data). Our results show that in both the EU-27 and the ENP countries, the evolution of the productive structure—as proxied by the export mix—is strongly path-dependent: countries tend to keep a comparative advantage in products that are strongly related to their current productive structure, and they also diversify in nearby products. However, this effect is much stronger for ENP countries, signalling their lower resources and capabilities to diversify in products that are not very related to their productive structure. We also show that the future export structures of countries are affected by their imports: both the EU-27 and ENP countries keep a comparative advantage in products that are strongly related to their imports, but only EU countries show a strong capability to diversify in new products from related import sectors. Our results also hold when controlling for geographical and institutional proximity.
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Related variety, trade linkages, and regional growth in Italy [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01034.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article presents estimates of the impact of regional variety and trade linkages on regional economic growth by means of export and import data by Italian province (NUTS 3) and sector (three-digit) for the period 1995 2003. Our results show strong evidence that related variety contributes to regional economic growth. Thus, Italian regions that are well endowed with sectors that are complementary in terms of competences (i.e., that show related variety) perform better. The article also assesses the effects of the breadth and relatedness of international trade linkages on regional growth, since they may bring new and related variety to a region. Our analysis demonstrates that regional growth is not affected by simply being well connected to the outside world or having a high variety of knowledge flowing into the region. Rather, we found evidence of related extraregional knowledge sparking intersectoral learning across regions. When the cognitive proximity between the extraregional knowledge and the knowledge base of a region is neither too small nor too large, real learning opportunities are present, and the external knowledge contributes to growth in regional employment.
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Related variety and regional growth in Spain [J]. |
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The emergence of new industries at the regional level in Spain: A proximity approach based on product relatedness [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2012.01170.x URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
How do regions diversify over time? Inspired by recent studies, we argue that regions diversify into industries that make use of capabilities in which regions are specialized. Since the spread of capabilities occurs through mechanisms that have a strong regional bias, we expect that capabilities that are available at the regional level play a larger role than do capabilities that are available at the country level for the development of new industries. To test this hypothesis, we analyze the emergence of new industries in 50 Spanish regions at the NUTS 3 level in the period 1988 2008. We calculate the capability-distance between new export products and existing export products in Spanish regions and provide econometric evidence that regions tend to diversify into new industries that use similar capabilities as existing industries in these regions. We show that proximity to the regional industrial structure plays a much larger role in the emergence of new industries in regions than does proximity to the national industrial structure. This finding suggests that capabilities at the regional level enable the development of new industries.
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The spatial evolution of the British automobile industry: Does location matter [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtm004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article aims to describe and explain the spatial evolution of the automobile sector in Great Britain from an evolutionary perspective. This analysis is based on a unique database of all entries and exits in this sector during the period 1895–1968, collected by the authors. Cox regressions show that spinoff dynamics, agglomeration economies and time of entry have had a significant effect on the survival rate of automobile firms during the period 1895–1968.
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Knowledge-relatedness in firm technological diversification [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00004-5 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
This paper claims that knowledge-relatedness is a key factor in affecting firms’ technological diversification. The hypothesis is tested that firms extend the range of their innovative activities in a non-random way. Specifically, we test the extent to which firms diversify their innovative activities across related technological fields, i.e. fields that share a common knowledge base and rely upon common heuristics and scientific principles. The paper proposes an original measure of knowledge-relatedness, using co-classification codes contained in patent documents, and examines the patterns of technological diversification of the whole population of firms from the United States, Italy, France, UK, Germany, and Japan patenting to the European Patent Office from 1982 to 1993. Robust evidence is found that knowledge-relatedness is a major feature of firms’ innovative activities.
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Growth, development and structural change of innovator networks: The case of Jena [M]// |
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Related variety, unrelated variety and technological breakthroughs: An analysis of US state-level patenting [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.940305 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Castaldi C., Frenken K. and Los B. Related variety, unrelated variety and technological breakthroughs: an analysis of US state-level patenting, Regional Studies. This paper investigates how variety affects the innovation output of a region. Borrowing arguments from theories of recombinant innovation, it is expected that related variety will enhance innovation as related technologies are more easily recombined into a new technology. However, it is also expected that unrelated variety enhances technological breakthroughs, since radical innovation often stems from connecting previously unrelated technologies opening up whole new functionalities and applications. Using patent data for US states in the period 1977 99 and associated citation data, evidence is found for both hypotheses. This study thus sheds a new and critical light on the related variety hypothesis in economic geography.
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Diversification and seller concentration: Evidence from changes, 1963-72 [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/1924100 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
No abstract is available for this item.
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An evolutionary perspective on diversification and corporate restructuring: Entry, exit, and economic performance during 1981-89 [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199610)17:8<587::AID-SMJ834>3.0.CO;2-1 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract This study proposes a theoretical perspective that firms engage in continuous search and selection activities in order to improve their knowledge base and thereby improve their performance. This general framework is applied to the context of corporate evolution. Entry and exit activities are understood as search and selection undertaken by the firm to improve their performance. One of the compelling features of this framework is that firms learn from their past entry experience and approach the next entry in a more focused and directed manner over time. Also, firms acquire additional knowledge from each entry event while applying their existing knowledge base. With a longitudinal (1981 89) data base on entry and exit activities of all publicly traded manufacturing firms in the United States, this study shows that applicability of the firm's knowledge base plays an important role in predicting which businesses a firm enters or exits. Firms sequentially enter businesses of similar human resource profiles and firms are more likely to divest lines of business of different profiles. Corporate-level analysis shows that such well-directed entry and exit contribute to the improvement of a firm's profitability.
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The emergence of new technology-based sectors in European regions: A proximity-based analysis of nanotechnology [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2014.07.008 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper analyzes the emergence of new technology-based sectors at the regional level focusing on nanotechnology, an infant technology whose evolution can be traced on the basis of patent application filings. We employ a methodological framework based on the ‘product-space’ approach, to investigate whether the development of new technologies is linked to the structure of the existing local knowledge base. We conduct a 15 EU country analysis at NUTS 2 level using patent data for 1986–2006. The results of the descriptive and econometric analysis support the idea that history matters in the spatial development of a sector, and that the technological competences accumulated at the local level are likely to shape the future patterns of technological diversification.
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To construct regional advantage from innovation systems first build policy platforms [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310601078671 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
It has become clear that the idea of regional learning is an inadequate way of evolving regional economic development because of numerous problems of composition or utilizing samples of one, learning legacies and delays and impossibility of repeat experience. So, perforce, to offset regional imbalances responsible agencies are having to explore solutions endogenously in greater measure. This means constructing regional advantage, not an easy thing to do, by integrating and exploiting a range of assets from economic strengths to knowledge assets, good governance and creativity. Of great importance in this is seeking to promote “related variety” among economic activities. Single innovations diffuse swiftly across technology “platforms” into related industries because absorptive capacity is high among them. The key trick in constructing regional advantage is designing appropriate policy platforms that mix variable policy instruments in an integrated and judicious manner. This paper maps out a theoretical approach enabling this to be accomplished.
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The dynamics of product innovation and firm competences [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.275 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract This study examines how product innovation contributes to the renewal of the firm through its dynamic and reciprocal relation with the firm's competences. Field research in five high-tech firms of varying age, size, and level of diversification is combined with analysis of existing theory to develop the findings of the study. Based on the notion that new products are created by linking competences relating to technologies and customers, a typology is derived that classifies new product projects based on whether a new product can draw on existing competences, or whether it requires competences the firm does not yet have. Following organizational learning theory, these options are conceptualized as exploitation and exploration. These organizational learning concepts are used to gain a dynamic and path-dependent view of product innovation and firm development, and to reveal the unique nature and challenges of different types of product innovation. Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Creating new paths? Offshore wind, policy activism, and peripheral region development [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12028 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article extends economic geography research on path creation by developing a conceptual framework that moves beyond existing firm-centric accounts and connects to a wider array of actors and multiscalar institutional contexts that mediate the emergence and development of growth paths. As part of a broader understanding of social and institutional agency, the approach specifically redresses the apparent neglect of the multiple roles of the state and public policy interventions in research on path creation. The framework is used to interpret more than 30 years of path-creation activities that have placed the peripheral region of North East England at the forefront of the United Kingdom's burgeoning offshore wind sector. The empirical findings reveal how a variety of path-creation mechanisms have served to shape, and be shaped by, successive causal episodes of complex and geographically situated social agency. Emerging from an episode of entrepreneurial activity, the path's creation was subsequently catalyzed by a decade of strategic and contextual regional policy intervention before a radical restructuring of economic development governance in the United Kingdom created a policy vacuum for the path's development. The analysis of the policy-on, policy-off episodes illustrates the potential agency of evolutionary inspired policy interventions in supporting mechanisms of path creation and reveals a varied set of implications for the cohesion and embeddedness of the path's development.
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Opportunities, incentives and the collective patterns of technological change [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.1997.tb00064.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Support to the research by the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria and the Italian National Research Council (CNR) is gratefully acknowledged.
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Dynamic capabilities: What are they [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0266(200010/11)21:10/11<1105::AID-SMJ133>3.0.CO;2-E URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract This paper focuses on dynamic capabilities and, more generally, the resource-based view of the firm. We argue that dynamic capabilities are a set of specific and identifiable processes such as product development, strategic decision making, and alliancing. They are neither vague nor tautological. Although dynamic capabilities are idiosyncratic in their details and path dependent in their emergence, they have significant commonalities across firms (popularly termed ‘best practice’). This suggests that they are more homogeneous, fungible, equifinal, and substitutable than is usually assumed. In moderately dynamic markets, dynamic capabilities resemble the traditional conception of routines. They are detailed, analytic, stable processes with predictable outcomes. In contrast, in high-velocity markets, they are simple, highly experiential and fragile processes with unpredictable outcomes. Finally, well-known learning mechanisms guide the evolution of dynamic capabilities. In moderately dynamic markets, the evolutionary emphasis is on variation. In high-velocity markets, it is on selection. At the level of RBV, we conclude that traditional RBV misidentifies the locus of long-term competitive advantage in dynamic markets, overemphasizes the strategic logic of leverage, and reaches a boundary condition in high-velocity markets. Copyright 08 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Relatedness, industrial branching and technological cohesion in US metropolitan areas [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.806793 URL [本文引用: 5] 摘要
Essletzbichler J. Relatedness, industrial branching and technological cohesion in US metropolitan areas, Regional Studies. Work by evolutionary economic geographers on the role of industry relatedness for regional economic development is extended into a number of methodological and empirical directions. First, relatedness is measured as the intensity of input utput linkages between industries. Second, this measure is employed to examine industry evolution in 360 US metropolitan areas. Third, an employment-weighted measure of metropolitan technological cohesion is developed. The results confirm that technological relatedness is positively related to metropolitan industry portfolio membership and industry entry and negatively related to industry exit. The decomposition of technological cohesion indicates that the selection of related incumbent industries complements industry entry and exit as the main drivers of change in metropolitan technological cohesion.
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The measurement of relatedness: An application to corporate diversification [J].https://doi.org/10.1086/209657 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Employing commodity flow data from input‐output (IO) tables, we construct two IO‐based measures to capture interindustry and intersegment vertical relatedness and complementarity. At the industry level, we demonstrate that the new IO‐based measures outperform traditional measures based on Standard Industry Classification (SIC) codes. At the firm level, we report that firms increase their degree of vertical relatedness and complementarity over time. The increasing pattern is robust; it is not sensitive to accounting changes in segment definition, different weighting methods, and different IO data employed. As an application, we examine the valuation effects of relatedness in the context of corporate diversification.
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The independent and joint effects of the skill and physical bases of relatedness in diversification [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199807)19:7<611::AID-SMJ962>3.0.CO;2-E URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract By examining the independent and joint effects of the skill and physical bases of relatedness, this study develops a multidimensional view of relatedness in diversification. The paper compares the ways the two bases identify relatedness, and examines empirically the relationship between relatedness and performance for a sample of 158 large diversified manufacturing firms. Each base of relatedness alone had no significant effect on financial performance. However, when the two approaches were combined, there was a strong positive effect on most indicators of performance. The findings demonstrate how different bases of relatedness complement and extend one another, and they clarify findings of previous studies that used a single base of relatedness. 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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A theoretical framework for evolutionary economic geography: Industrial dynamics and urban growth as a branching process [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbm018 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
We propose a framework that specifies the process of economic development as an evolutionary branching process of product innovations. Each product innovation provides a growth opportunity for an existing firm or a new firm, and for an existing city or a new city. One can then obtain both firm size and city size distributions as two aggregates resulting from a single evolutionary process. Gains from variety at the firm level (economies of scope) and the urban level (Jacobs externalities) provide the central feedback mechanism in economic development generating strong path dependencies in the spatial concentration of industries and the specialization of cities. Gains from size are also expected, yet these are ultimately bounded by increasing wages. The contribution of our framework lies in providing a microfoundation of economic geography in terms of the interplay between industrial dynamics and urban growth. The framework is sufficiently general to investigate systematically a number of stylized facts in economic geography, while at the same time it is sufficiently flexible to be extended such as to become applicable in more specific micro-contexts. A number of extensions related to the concepts of knowledge spillover and lock-in, are also discussed.
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Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growth [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601120296 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Frenken K., Van Oort F. and Verburg T. (2007) Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growth, Regional Studies 41, 685–697. In economic theory, one can distinguish between variety as a source of regional knowledge spillovers, called Jacobs externalities, and variety as a portfolio protecting a region from external shocks. It is argued that Jacobs externalities are best measured by related variety (within sectors), while the portfolio argument is better captured by unrelated variety (between sectors). A methodology based on entropy measures is introduced to compute related variety and unrelated variety. Using data at the NUTS 3 level in the Netherlands for 1996–2002, it was found that Jacobs externalities enhance employment growth, while unrelated variety dampens unemployment growth. Productivity growth can be explained by traditional determinants including investments and research and development expenditures. Implications for regional policy follow. Frenken K., Van Oort F. et Verburg T. (2007) La variété connexe, la variété sans rapport et la croissance économique régionale., Regional Studies 41, 685–697. Dans la théorie économique, on peut distinguer entre la variété comme la source des retombées de connaissance régionales, dites les effets externes de Jacob, et la variété comme un portefeuille qui protège la région des chocs externes. On affirme que l'on peut mieux mesurer les effets externes de Jacob à partir de la notion de variété connexe (au sein des secteurs), tandis que l'argument qui pr00ne plut00t la notion de portefeuille est mieux saisi par la notion de variété sans rapport (entre les secteurs). On présente une méthodologie fondée sur des mesures d'entropie afin d'estimer la variété connexe et la variété sans rapport. A partir des données au niveau NUTS 3 auprès des Pays-Bas pour la période de 1996 à 2002, on trouve que les effets externes de Jacob augmentent la croissance de l'emploi, alors que la variété sans rapport atténue la croissance du ch00mage. La croissance de la productivité s'explique par des déterminants traditionnels, y compris l'investissement et les dépenses de recherche-développement. Il s'ensuit les implications pour la politique régionale. Variété Croissance; Effets externes de Jacob; Economies d'agglomération; Retombées Entropie Frenken K., Van Oort F. und Verburg T. (2007) Zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt, nicht zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt und regionales Wirtschaftswachstum, Regional Studies 41, 685–697. In der Wirtschaftstheorie unterscheidet man zwischen der Vielfalt als Quelle regionaler Wissensübertragung (den so genannten Jacobs-Externalit01ten) und der Vielfalt als Portfolio zum Schutz einer Region vor externen Erschütterungen. Wir stellen die These auf, dass sich die Jacobs-Externalit01ten am besten anhand der zusammenh01ngenden Vielfalt (innerhalb von Sektoren) messen lassen, w01hrend sich das Portfolio-Argument besser durch nicht zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt (zwischen verschiedenen Sektoren) darstellen l01sst. Mit Hilfe einer Methodologie auf der Grundlage entropischer Messungen ermitteln wir zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt und nicht zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt. Anhand von Daten auf dem NUTS 3-Niveau in den Niederlanden für den Zeitraum von 1996 bis 2002 stellen wir fest, dass die Jacobs-Externalit01ten zu einem Anstieg des Besch01ftigungsniveaus führen, w01hrend nicht zusammenh01ngende Vielfalt den Anstieg der Arbeitslosigkeit d01mpft. Der Anstieg der Produktivit01t l01sst sich durch traditionelle Determinanten wie Investitionen und Ausgaben für F&E erkl01ren. Im Anschluss werden die Konsequenzen für die Regionalpolitik beschrieben. Vielfalt; Wachstum; Jacobs-Externalit01ten; Agglomerationswirtschaften; U¨bertragung; Entropie; Frenken K., Van Oort F. y Verburg T. (2007) Variedad relacionada, variedad no relacionada y el crecimiento económico regional, Regional Studies 41, 685–697. En la teoría económica, podemos distinguir entre la variedad como una fuente de desbordamientos de conocimiento regionales, llamados externalidades Jacobs, y la variedad como una cartera que protege una región de choques externos. Sostenemos que las externalidades Jacobs se miden mejor según la variedad relacionada (dentro de los sectores), mientras que el argumento de la cartera se capta mejor con una variedad no relacionada (entre sectores). Para calcular la variedad relacionada y la variedad no relacionada, introducimos una metodología basada en las medidas de entropía. Usando datos en el nivel NUTS 3 en los Países Bajos para el periodo 1996–2002, observamos que las externalidades Jacobs aumentan el crecimiento de empleo mientras que la variedad no relacionada desestimula el crecimiento de desempleo. El crecimiento de productividad puede explicarse mediante determinantes tradicionales incluyendo las inversiones y los gastos en I + D. También explicamos las implicaciones para la política regional. Variedad; Crecimiento; Externalidades Jacobs; Economías de aglomeración; Desbordamiento; Entropía
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Rules of the game: The place of institutions in regional economic change [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400903389979 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
GertlerM. S. Rules of the game: the place of institutions in regional economic change,Regional Studies. Institutions exert a pervasive influence on the evolution and character of regional economies. Yet, this role is poorly understood within recent debates on neoliberalism, varieties of capitalism, and other approaches to the study of economic change. A reconstituted institutional economic geography must accommodate individual agency, institutional evolution, interscalar relations, and comparative methodologies. Examining recent work on universities in local economies, as well as on creativity-based strategies and social inclusion/polarization, it is shown how locally distinctive institutional architectures shape evolutionary trajectories, leading to differentiated social and economic outcomes. The paper then enunciates some important principles of methodology and theory-building in institutional analysis. GertlerM. S. Les règles du jeu: le r00le des institutions dans le développement économique,Regional Studies. Les institutions ont une influence omniprésente sur le développement et les caractéristiques des économies régionales. Néanmoins, ce r00le s'avère mal-entendu dans les débats récents sur le néo-libéralisme, les tendances capitalistes, et d'autres fa04ons d'étudier le développement économique. Une géographie économique institutionnelle repensée doit comporter des méthodologies spécifiques aux agences individuelles, à l'évolution institutionnelle, aux relations interscalaires, ainsi que des methodologies comparatives. A partir des recherches récentes sur les universités situées dans des économies locales, aussi bien que sur des stratégies basées sur l'innovation et sur l'inclusion/la polarisation sociale, on montre comment l'architecture institutionnelle, qui se distingue sur le plan local, influe sur les trajectoires futures, ce qui entra06ne des résultats sociaux et économiques distincts. L'article expose d'importants principes quant à la construction de méthodologies et de théories dans le domaine de l'analyse institutionnelle. Institutions69Capitalismes comparatifs69Développement futur69Universités et économies locales69Economies innovatrices69Méthodologies institutionnalistes GertlerM. S. Die Spielregeln: der Platz der Institutionen in der regionalen wirtschaftlichen Ver01nderung,Regional Studies. Institutionen üben einen umfassenden Einfluss auf die Evolution und das Wesen von Regionalwirtschaften aus. In den aktuellen Debatten über Neoliberalismus, Spielarten des Kapitalismus und weitere Ans01tze zum Studium wirtschaftlicher Ver01nderungen wird diese Rolle jedoch nicht ausreichend verstanden. In einer rekonstitutierten institutionellen Wirtschaftsgeografie müssen die individuellen Handlungen ebenso berücksichtigt werden wie die institutionelle Evolution, die interskalaren Beziehungen und die Vergleichsmethodologien. Bei einer Untersuchung der aktuellen Arbeiten von Universit01ten in Lokalwirtschaften sowie der kreativit01tsbasierten Strategien und der sozialen Eingliederung bzw. Polarisierung zeigt sich, wie lokal unterschiedliche institutionelle Architekturen evolution01re Bahnen pr01gen, was zu unterschiedlichen sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Ergebnissen führt. Anschlie08end werden in dem Beitrag einige wichtige Prinzipien der Methodologie und der Theoriebildung in der institutionellen Analyse formuliert. Institutionen69Kapitalismusvergleich69Evolution01re Ver01nderung69Universit01ten und Lokalwirtschaften69Kreative Wirtschaften69Institutionalistische Methodologien GertlerM. S. Las reglas del juego: el lugar de las instituciones en el cambio económico regional,Regional Studies. Las instituciones ejercen una influencia dominante en la evolución y el carácter de las economías regionales. Sin embargo, esta función apenas se entiende en los recientes debates sobre neoliberalismo, variedades del capitalismo y otros enfoques para el estudio del cambio económico. Una geografía económica institucional reconstituida debe acomodar a la acción individual, la evolución institucional, las relaciones interescalares y las metodologías comparativas. Al examinar el trabajo reciente sobre las universidades en economías locales, así como las estrategias basadas en la creatividad y la inclusión/polarización social, observamos que las arquitecturas institucionales distintivas a nivel local forman las trayectorias evolucionarias lo que conduce a unos resultados sociales y económicos diferenciados. En este artículo formulamos algunos principios importantes de metodología y construcción teórica en el análisis institucional. Instituciones69Capitalismos comparativos69Cambio evolucionario69Universidades y economías locales69Economías creativas69Metodologías institucionalistas
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Production space and regional industrial evolution in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-015-9689-4 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
ABSTRACT A growing literature on evolutionary economic geography concludes that regional industrial evolution is path-dependent and is determined by the preexisting industries. This study more accurately calculates the industry relatedness based on the co-occurrence approach to portray the production space of China manufacturing sectors and then examines the impact of industry relatedness on regional industrial evolution. The findings report that industry relatedness does underscore the regional structural change in China but shows significant regional differences in the evolution path. The coastal region has strong tendency of path dependence in its industrial evolution, while North West and South West break the path-dependent trajectory and transition into high productive sectors distant from their own production network. The results suggest that governmental policies can play a crucial role in creating new paths in the West. Institutions matter to allow the significant role of industry relatedness in driving regional industrial evolution.
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Entrepreneurship in China: The role of localisation and urbanisation economies [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098015595598 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Why are some regions more entrepreneurial than others? This study explores the determinants of manufacturing entrepreneurship at the prefectural city level in China by highlighting the influence of localisation and urbanisation economies and the significance of technological relatedness and small firm clusters. Descriptive analysis has reported significant and increasing spatial variation of manufacturing entrepreneurship in China during 2001 2007. The empirical results based on the negative binomial model provide evidence to support the business network view of entrepreneurship. Localisation economies can predict entrepreneurship well, while the effects of urbanisation economies are mixed. In terms of localisation economies, supplier/customer linkages play a very important and positive role in cultivating entrepreneurship. The mixed results of urbanisation economies are mainly derived from the interweaving of related variety and unrelated variety. The former significantly promotes entrepreneurship, while the latter in most cases discourages entrepreneurship. The clustering of small firms has a larger effect on entrepreneurship, which is consistent with the view of Vernon and Chinitz effect.
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Inter-firm R&D partnerships: An overview of major trends and patterns since 1960 [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(01)00120-2 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Abstract Evolutionary economic geography (EEG) indicates that regional industrial development is path dependent. The empirical studies in EEG however have not paid sufficient attention to the importance of global linkages nor the role of regional institutions in driving industrial dynamics. Based on firm level data of four-digit manufacturing industries during 1998 to 2008 in China, we find that Chinese regions branch into new industries technologically related to the existing industrial portfolio and related industries are less likely to exit. Further analysis reveals that global linkages, economic liberalization and state involvement not only create favourable conditions to allow a larger role of technological relatedness but also generate opportunities for Chinese regions to create new paths of industrial development.
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The dynamic resource-based view: Capability lifecycles [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.332 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article introduces the concept of the capability lifecycle (CLC), which articulates general patterns and paths in the evolution of organizational capabilities over time. The capability lifecycle provides a structure for a more comprehensive approach to dynamic resource-based theory. The analysis incorporates the founding, development, and maturity of capabilities in a manner that helps to explain the sources of heterogeneity in organizational capabilities. In addition, the analysis includes the 'branching' of an original capability into several possible altered forms.
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Industrial development in cities [J].https://doi.org/10.1086/262013 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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The product space conditions the development of nations [J].https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144581 URL PMID: 17656717 [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Abstract: Economies grow by upgrading the type of products they produce and export. The technology, capital, institutions and skills needed to make such new products are more easily adapted from some products than others. We study the network of relatedness between products, or product space, finding that most upscale products are located in a densely connected core while lower income products occupy a less connected periphery. We show that countries tend to move to goods close to those they are currently specialized in, allowing nations located in more connected parts of the product space to upgrade their exports basket more quickly. Most countries can reach the core only if they jump over empirically infrequent distances in the product space. This may help explain why poor countries have trouble developing more competitive exports, failing to converge to the income levels of rich countries.
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ABSTRACT This essay considers the nature and evolution of both the old and the new institutional economics and considers the possibility of dialogue or even con- vergence between these schools. It also considers shifts of thinking inside and outside mainstream economics that have altered the conception of the eco- nomic agent, even within mainstream theory. In particular, the stipulation of endogenous preferences, once a hallmark of the old institutionalism, is gain- ing legitimacy within mainstream economics. In this context, the new institu- tional economics is evolving in a direction that makes productive dialogue between the two institutionalist traditions more possible. (J.E.L.: B15, B25, B52)
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Characterizing the "technological position" of firms, with application to quantifying technological opportunity and research spillovers [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-7333(89)90007-3 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
U.S. Patent data is used to characterize the technological position of manufacturing firms. Clusters of technologically related firms are identified and compared to standard industry groups. It is shown that the productivity of R&D varies systematically across these clusters, and this variation is related to the notion of “technological opportunity”. Finally, it is shown that the productivity of a firm's R&D is affected by the R&D of its technological neighbors. This is taken as evidence for “spillovers” of R&D among firms.
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We compare the geographic location of patent citations with that of the cited patents, as evidence of the extent to which knowledge spillovers are geographically localized. We find that citations to domestic patents are more likely to be domestic, and more likely to come from the same state and SMSA as the cited patents, compared with a "control frequency" reflecting the pre-existing concentration of related research activity. These effects are particularly significant at the local (SMSA) level. Localization fades over time, but only very slowly. There is no evidence that more "basic" inventions diffuse more rapidly than others.
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Towards a competence theory of the region [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/cje/23.2.151 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper argues the case for extending the competence theory of the firm, or more generally the competence perspective, to analysis of the region. The relevance of the perspective follows from the characterisation of productive systems such as firms and regions as ensembles of competences that emerge from, but are not reducible to, social interaction. Attention is drawn to an identifiable (although unacknowledged) convergence of ideas in the recent regional literature, arguing that these ideas are best re-conceptualised in terms of regional competences. The cluster of high-technology firms in the Cambridge region of the UK is briefly referred to in order to illustrate the main ideas of the paper.
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No abstract is available for this item.
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Evolution in economic geography: Institutions, political economy, and adaptation [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01017.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Economic geography has, over the past decade or so, drawn upon ideas from evolutionary economics in trying to understand processes of regional growth and change. Recently, some researchers have sought to delimit and develop an "evolutionary economic geography" (EEG), aiming to create a more systematic theoretical framework for research. This article provides a sympathetic critique and elaboration of this emergent EEG but takes issue with some aspects of its characterization in recent programmatic statements. While acknowledging that EEG is an evolving and pluralist project, we are concerned that the reliance on certain theoretical frameworks that are imported from evolutionary economics and complexity science threatens to isolate it from other approaches in economic geography, limiting the opportunities for cross-fertilization. In response, the article seeks to develop a social and pluralist conception of institutions and social agency in EEG, drawing upon the writings of leading institutional economists, and to link evolutionary concepts to political economy approaches, arguing that the evolution of the economic landscape must be related to processes of capital accumulation and uneven development. As such, we favor the use of evolutionary and institutional concepts within a geographical political economy approach, rather than the construction of some kind of theoretically separate EEG evolution in economic geography, not an evolutionary economic geography.
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Towards a knowledge-based theory of the geographical cluster [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/10.4.921 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Co-located firms within related industries enhance the ability to create knowledge by variation and a deepened division of labour. The interdependent development between economic activities and local institutions make the cluster attractive to some industries and hostile to others. The very reasons why cognitive distance might be small within the cluster tend to make cognitive distance great between clusters and make interfirm co-operation across bodies of knowledge more costly. The additional value created when clustering may justify the additional cost. Copyright 2001 by Oxford University Press.
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The competitiveness of firms and regions 'Ubiquitification' and the importance of localized learning [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/096977649900600102 URL [本文引用: 2] |
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Path dependence in regional development: Persistence and change in three industrial clusters in Santa Catarina, Brazil [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00072-2 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT The concept of path dependence is useful to understand why economic actors who face a fundamental change in the overall incentive structure behave in a way that would appear irrational to the external observer. Industrial clusters in the southern Brazilian state of Santa Catarina gave an impressive performance in the closed market of the past. It was perfectly rational for individual firms to try to internalize as many activities as possible for various reasons. Thus emerged an extremely noncooperative business culture which does not change easily even under the new conditions of an opening market and increasing competitive pressure; firms try to adjust to the new conditions based on their established practices. Yet the comparison between different clusters reveals that under certain conditions the behavior of firms can change profoundly toward cooperation and collective efficiency. These conditions include an existential crisis, the presence of change agents and the existence of organizations they can use, and the existence of a role model that shows a possible alternative path for the adjustment process. The most important changes are attempts to stimulate cooperation between firms and attempts to shape the supporting environment. Most changes occur inside the business community; the political-administrative system at the municipal and state levels is much more resistant to change.
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Agents of structural change: The role of firms and entrepreneurs in regional diversification [R]. |
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Skill relatedness and firm diversification [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.2013.34.issue-3 URL [本文引用: 2] |
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How do regions diversify over time? Industry relatedness and the development of new growth paths in regions [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2011.01121.x URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
abstract The question of how new regional growth paths emerge has been raised by many leading economic geographers. From an evolutionary perspective, there are strong reasons to believe that regions are most likely to branch into industries that are technologically related to the preexisting industries in the regions. Using a new indicator of technological relatedness between manufacturing industries, we analyzed the economic evolution of 70 Swedish regions from 1969 to 2002 with detailed plant-level data. Our analyses show that the long-term evolution of the economic landscape in Sweden is subject to strong path dependencies. Industries that were technologically related to the preexisting industries in a region had a higher probability of entering that region than did industries that were technologically unrelated to the region's preexisting industries. These industries had a higher probability of exiting that region. Moreover, the industrial profiles of Swedish regions showed a high degree of technological cohesion. Despite substantial structural change, this cohesion was persistent over time. Our methodology also proved useful when we focused on the economic evolution of one particular region. Our analysis indicates that the Link枚ping region increased its industrial cohesion over 30 years because of the entry of industries that were closely related to its regional portfolio and the exit of industries that were technologically peripheral. In summary, we found systematic evidence that the rise and fall of industries is strongly conditioned by industrial relatedness at the regional level.
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The co-evolution of technology, industrial structure, and supporting institutions [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/3.1.47 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
There is a large intellectual discrepancy between most formal growth models described by economists and descriptions of growth in economic history. This paper draws on an evolutionary theory of economic growth that brings together appreciative theorizing regarding growth and formal theorizing. It aims to piece together a relatively coherent appreciative theoretical account of economic development at a sectoral level by laying out a story of the growth, and development, of a manufacturing sector, from birth to maturity, and perhaps until death, that seems to fit many cases and which can serve as a target for formalization. The paper first describes and tries to link two broad bodies of appreciative evolutionary theoretic writing. The first proposes that a new technology develops along a relatively standard track from the time it is born, to its maturity, and that firm and industry structure ‘coevolve’ with the technology. The other is concerned with the development of institutions in response to changing economic conditions, incentives, and pressures. The paper then considers ‘punctuated equilibrium’ before concluding with a consideration of two economic developmental implications that appear to flow from the analysis. One concerns the pattern of change of productivity, of capital intensity, and relative variables associated with economic growth, as a technology and industry structure develop. The other is concerned with implicitly cross-country comparisons, and is focused on how ‘comparative advantage’ develops in a new industry.
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Learning by interaction: Absorptive capacity, cognitive distance and governance [J].https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009941416749 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This article analyses problems and solutions in thegovernance of knowledge exchange and joint knowledgeproduction. The analysis is based on a theory whichcombines elements of transaction cost economics,social exchange theory and theory of knowledge. Thetheory of knowledge yields an analysis of absorptivecapacity, communicative capacity and learning byinteraction. In that setting, the paper analysesproblems of governance: hold-up problems as a resultof specific investments in setting up knowledgeexchange, spill-over problems, a trade-off betweenstability and change of exchange relations, and atrade-off between novelty and understandability(`cognitive distance'). A survey is given ofcontingencies that affect the size of problems and theefficacy of instruments for their governance.
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Optimal cognitive distance and absorptive capacity [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2007.04.003 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In this paper we test the relation between cognitive distance and innovation performance of firms engaged in technology-based alliances. The key finding is that the hypothesis of an inverted U-shaped effect of cognitive distance on innovation performance of firms is confirmed. Moreover, as expected, we found that the positive effect for firms is much higher when engaging in more radical, exploratory alliances than in more exploitative alliances. The effect of cumulative R&D turns out to be mixed. It appears to increase absorptive capacity, as expected, but there is clear evidence that it also reduces the effect of cognitive distance on novelty value, making it increasingly difficult to find additional novelty.
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A geographical political economy of evolution in economic geography [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01021.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Key themes for evolution in economic geography are identified that clarify and further refine and reinforce our argument for broader conceptions of institutions, social agency, and power and for the situation of the plural and emerging field of evolutionary approaches more fully within geographical political economy. We address the following issues: conceptual and terminological clarity; evolution and institutions within and beyond the firm; agency, bounded determinacy, and power; and research method and design. Our central contention is that geographical political economy provides a coherent and well-structured conceptual and theoretical framework with which to broaden and deepen our understanding, exploration, and practice of evolutionary thinking in economic geography.
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Product relatedness and firm exports in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lht037 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Do institutions matter for regional development [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.748978 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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On the notion of co-evolution in economic geography [M]//Boschma R, Martin R. |
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Economies of scope and the scope of the enterprise [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(80)90002-5 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper examines elements of an efficiency-based theory of the multiproduct firm. The theoretical framework developed by Williamson to explain vertical integration is extended to explain diversification. The proposition is advanced that a cost function displaying economies of scope has no direct implications for the scope of the business enterprise. However, if economies of scope are based upon the common and recurrent use of proprietary knowhow or the common and recurrent use of a specialized and indivisible physical asset, then multiproduct enterprise (diversification) is an efficient way of organizing economic activity. These propositions are first developed in a general context and then examined in the context of diversification in the U.S. Petroleum industry.
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Towards an economic theory of the multiproduct firm [J].
Downloadable (with restrictions)! Author(s): Teece, David J.. 1982 Abstract: AbstractThis paper outlines a theory of the multiproduct firm. Important building blocks include excess capacity and its creation, market imperfections, and the peculiarities of organizational knowledge, including its fungible and tacit character. A framework is adopted in which profit seeking firms are seen to diversify in order to avoid the high transactions costs associated with using various markets to trade the services of various specialized assets. Neoclassical explanations of the multiproduct firm are shown to be seriously deficient.(This abstract was borrowed from another version of this item.)
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Dynamic capabilities and strategic management [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0266 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
CiteSeerX - Scientific documents that cite the following paper: A.: Dynamic capability and strategic management
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Understanding corporate coherence: Theory and evidence [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(94)90094-9 URL [本文引用: 5] 摘要
No abstract is available for this item.
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Technological discontinuities and organizational environments [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/2392832 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper focuses on patterns of technological change and on the impact of technological breakthroughs on environmental conditions. Using data from the minicomputer, cement, and airline industries from their births through 1980, we demonstrate that technology evolves through periods of incremental change punctuated by technological breakthroughs that either enhance or destroy the competence of firms in an industry. These breakthroughs, or technological discontinuities, significantly increase both environmental uncertainty and munificence. The study shows that while competence-destroying discontinuities are initiated by new firms and are associated with increased environmental turbulence, competence-enhancing discontinuities are initiated by existing firms and are associated with decreased environmental turbulence. These effects decrease over successive discontinuities. Those firms that initiate major technological changes grow more rapidly than other firms.
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How to jump further and catch up? Path-breaking in an uneven industry space [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbw047 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recent studies have argued that regional diversification emerges as a path-dependent process. Developed countries that industrialize do so first from core areas in an uneven industry space and have more opportunities to jump to new related industries and sustain economic growth than do developing countries that jump from peripheral areas. Can developing countries/regions jump further to break these path-dependent trajectories? Based on China export data, we show that regions can make such a jump by investing in extra-regional linkages and internal innovation. The effects of these two sets of variables vary across regions and industries.
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