Spatio-temporal characteristics of famine and its environmental causes in the Jiangsu-Shanghai region during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)
Received date: 2019-08-05
Request revised date: 2019-10-10
Online published: 2020-10-28
Supported by
National Natural Science Foundation of China(41701219)
Project of Philosophy and Social Science Research in Colleges and Universities in Jiangsu Province(2017SJB0161)
National Key Research and Development Project(2016YFA0600401)
Open Project for Institute of History of Science and Technology in Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology(1061151801138)
Copyright
The risk of famine and food insecurity in the process of socioeconomic development is an important issue. This study examined the trend of famines in the Jiangsu and Shanghai region in the Qing Dynasty during 1644-1911. Based on the 1487 famine records extracted from local chronicles and other historical materials, this study first reconstructed two annual sequences of famines (frequency of counties affected by famine and its weighted index) by using the semantic differential method and weighted index. Then, the study quantitatively explored the spatial-temporal variations of the famines and their causes from different factors and their combinations during the Qing Dynasty, using multiple statistical tools such as wavelet analysis and kernel density estimation. The results show that: 1) Famines were very frequent in the Jiangsu and Shanghai area throughout the Qing Dynasty, with an average of one famine per 1.2 years and six counties affected annually by famines, but the vast majority of famine years were dominated by mild famines (grade 1) and moderate famines (grade 2). The frequency and intensity of the famines in the study area displayed clear patterns of phasic, periodic, seasonal, and intermittent explosive changes. The most serious periods were the mid-late part of the prosperous Kangxi-Qianlong times, and the periods during the reigns of Daoguang and Xianfeng when the Qing Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline. In addition to the increasing frequency of extreme droughts and floods in these two periods, it might also be related to the significant increase in the exposure and vulnerability of the social system to disasters and famines at those times. 2) The spatial distribution of famines is characterized by a pattern of "two-zones and multi-nucleus" from southeast to northwest. The areas along the banks of the Yangtze River, around the Taihu Lake and the Gaoyou Lake, the old Yellow River course and the Hongze Lake were famine-prone areas. Besides the social factors like population and economic development, the geographic environment, especially the distribution of water bodies, had an important impact on the distribution of famine-prone areas. 3) The main environmental factors that caused famine were flooding, followed by droughts and storm surges, and other disasters accounted for only a small part. The combination of different disaster-causing factors would have different effects on famine. The proportion of famines caused by a single environmental factor accounted for the vast majority. With regard to the severity of famine, the mean famine index values corresponding to those caused by a combination of two and three environmental factors were both larger than that of a single factor. The distribution of famines related to floods and droughts determined the overall distribution pattern of famines in the Jiangsu-Shanghai region during 1644-1911. The above understanding can provide some valuable reference for identifying high-risk areas of famine in Jiangsu and Shanghai and exploring the impact of regional natural hazards on famine and protection mechanisms of food security in the future.
WEI Zhudeng . Spatio-temporal characteristics of famine and its environmental causes in the Jiangsu-Shanghai region during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)[J]. PROGRESS IN GEOGRAPHY, 2020 , 39(8) : 1333 -1344 . DOI: 10.18306/dlkxjz.2020.08.008
表1 饥荒记录的分级标准Tab.1 Grading criteria for famine records |
饥荒等级 | 饥荒程度描述关键词 | 意义 |
---|---|---|
1 | 饥,荒,祲,民艰于食,民乏食(食豆饼糟糠),路有流民(零星),赈济(钱粮)等 | 轻度饥荒:粮食严重短缺;通过缩衣节食或接受救济尚可维持;零星人口流移 |
2 | 大饥,大荒(奇荒,大祲),人食草根树皮、观音土,民不聊生,饥民众多,流亡(乞食)载道,道殣相望,卖儿鬻女,聚众抢夺(成群横索),间有死者 | 中度饥荒:粮食极为短缺;依靠替代性食物、大范围流亡迁徙等现象更为普遍;小范围人口死亡和社会秩序趋于混乱 |
3 | 人相食,饥死、饿死者无算(死者甚众),死者枕藉,死者载道,亘古奇荒,死者数万(有具体数字) | 重度饥荒:粮食极端短缺;人口大量死亡;道德伦理和社会秩序崩溃 |
图1 清代(1644—1911年)苏沪地区的饥荒序列Fig.1 The famine sequence in the Jiangsu and Shanghai region during the Qing Dynasty, 1644-1911 |
表2 清代苏沪地区饥荒的阶段性特征Tab.2 Temporal characteristics of famines in the Jiangsu and Shanghai region in the Qing Dynasty |
编号 | 时段 | 跨越 年数/a | 饥荒年数/平均时间间隔 | 饥荒县次/年均饥荒县次 | 饥荒指数 /年均饥荒县次 | 饥荒 特点 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
等级1 | 等级2 | 等级3 | 总年数 | 等级1 | 等级2 | 等级3 | 总县次 | |||||
0 | 1644—1911年 | 268 | 208/1.29 | 134/2.00 | 35/7.66 | 221/1.21 | 973/3.63 | 444/1.66 | 70/0.26 | 1487/5.55 | 272.5/1.02 | — |
1 | 1644—1683年 | 40 | 33/1.21 | 31/1.29 | 11/3.64 | 35/1.14 | 138/3.45 | 95/2.38 | 15/0.38 | 248/6.20 | 51.3/1.28 | 多发—偏重 |
2 | 1684—1719年 | 36 | 29/1.24 | 23/1.57 | 2/18.00 | 34/1.06 | 113/3.14 | 49/1.36 | 7/0.19 | 169/4.69 | 30.2/0.84 | 多发—偏轻 |
3 | 1720—1760年 | 41 | 38/1.08 | 24/1.71 | 8/5.13 | 39/1.05 | 292/7.12 | 88/2.15 | 18/0.44 | 398/9.70 | 66.4/1.62 | 多发—偏重 |
4 | 1761—1813年 | 53 | 36/1.47 | 20/2.65 | 3/17.67 | 39/1.36 | 128/2.42 | 69/1.30 | 9/0.17 | 206/3.89 | 38.9/0.73 | 少发—偏轻 |
5 | 1814—1857年 | 44 | 38/1.16 | 21/2.10 | 8/5.50 | 38/1.16 | 173/3.93 | 107/2.43 | 16/0.36 | 296/6.73 | 59.0/1.34 | 多发—偏重 |
6 | 1858—1911年 | 54 | 34/1.59 | 15/3.60 | 3/18.00 | 36/1.50 | 129/2.39 | 36/0.67 | 5/0.09 | 170/3.15 | 26.7/0.49 | 少发—偏轻 |
注:“/”后的数据为平均时间间隔(a)或年均饥荒县次(次)。 |
表3 各阶段的饥荒频发期Tab.3 Periods of frequent famines in each stage |
阶段 | 频发期 |
---|---|
1644—1683年 | 1670—1673、1678—1680年 |
1684—1719年 | 1695—1697、1705—1709、1714—1716年 |
1720—1760年 | 1720—1727、1731—1734、1736—1739、 1741—1744、1753—1757年 |
1761—1813年 | 1784—1786、1804—1806年 |
1814—1857年 | 1831—1834、1848—1850年 |
1858—1911年 | 1875—1877年 |
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