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PROGRESS IN GEOGRAPHY >

2017 , Vol. 36 >Issue 2: 244 - 255

DOI: https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2017.02.010

Reviews

Review of international research on national parks as an evolving knowledge domain in recent 30 years

  • XIAO Lianlian , 1, 2 ,
  • ZHONG Linsheng , 1, 2, * ,
  • ZHOU Rui 1, 3 ,
  • YU Hu 1
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  • 1. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
  • 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
  • 3. State Key Laboratory of Resources and Environment Information System, CAS, Beijing 100101, China

Online published: 2017-02-20

Supported by

National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.41671527, No.41301623

Program of the Ministry of Environmental Protection (Research on National Park System)]

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《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
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Abstract

Research on national parks has been a focus in ecological protection and tourism fields. Based on 451 English-language academic publications (1986-2016) collected from the Web of Science database, this article synthesizes the multiple aspects of research on national parks with regard to resource assessment, environmental impact, planning, and management, and identifies research methods in national park studies. Citespace III and systematic review methods are employed to compile and analyze the literature in the database. This article also critically proposes five directions for future research in China, including legislation, development models, management content and methods, community participation models and mechanism, and environmental impact monitoring and assessment of national parks. In general, characteristics of international research on national parks involve complicated objectives, diverse perspectives, and comprehensive methods. In the context of national park construction in China, developing a research system of national parks based on international experiences will contribute to enriching the research on China’s protected areas and providing guidance for Chinese national park construction.

Key words： national park; Citespace III; map of knowledge domain; literature review; enlightenment

Cite this article

XIAO Lianlian , ZHONG Linsheng , ZHOU Rui , YU Hu . Review of international research on national parks as an evolving knowledge domain in recent 30 years[J]. PROGRESS IN GEOGRAPHY, 2017 , 36(2) : 244 -255 . DOI: 10.18306/dlkxjz.2017.02.010

1 引言

国家公园思想最初起源于美国,是美国自然保护主义观、荒野体验需求以及社会民主发展等综合作用的产物。1832年,美国著名艺术家乔治·卡特琳提出国家公园构想之后,在环保主义者、学者、政府官员、企业家等不断推动下,美国于1872年建立了世界上第一个国家公园——黄石公园。此后一个多世纪里,国家公园作为一张名片和国家形象在全世界范围内不断推广,有关国家公园的研究也逐渐深入。
中国在国家公园建设方面也进行了一些探索,早在20世纪80年代就设立了国家级风景名胜区,英译为“National Park”,并借鉴了一些国家公园的理念和做法。2008年,中国环境保护部和国家旅游局将黑龙江伊春市汤旺河作为国家公园试点;同年,国家林业局同意将云南省作为国家公园建设试点省份。以上实践虽然都冠以“国家公园”之名,但在体制机制、管理方式等方面并没有彻底变革(宋瑞, 2015)。2015年,国家发展与改革委员会联合13个部门在全国范围内启动9个国家公园体制试点工作,这意味着中国在国家层面探索一种符合国情的保护地管理模式。相应地,学界对国家公园也保持了持续关注,并从风景园林学、地理学等视角开展研究。风景园林学着眼于介绍国外国家公园管理体制经验、对中国保护地体系的功能与定位进行重构、国家公园管理工具探索等(杨锐, 2003; 陈耀华等, 2014),地理学则围绕国家公园性质对中国未来国家公园建设的法律规制、体制建设路径、准入设置等作了一定的探究(张海霞, 2010; 郭宇航, 2013; 罗金华, 2013)。但总体而言,国内研究主要停留在对国外国家公园实践经验总结、中外保护地管理对比以及未来中国国家公园建设的体制构想等宏观层面的探索阶段,研究方法以概念性描述为主,对中国国家公园建设的规程、遴选标准、人与公园关系、规划与系统管理等中、微观层面的问题缺乏深入和系统的研究,亟需借鉴国际相关研究成果进行深化。鉴于此,本文运用系统综述法和CitespaceⅢ分析法,从资源评估、环境影响、发展模式、规划、运营管理5个方面系统回顾国外国家公园研究的主要内容和脉络,进而提出中国国家公园研究方向,为未来中国国家公园理论研究和实践发展提供参考。

2 文献概况

2.1 文献数据来源

本文以Web of Science(WOS)引文数据库为基础,以“标题=(national park)AND主题=(tourism OR recreation OR environment OR ecosystem OR transportation OR landscape OR stakeholder OR management),时间跨度从1986-2016年6月”进行文献检索,初步检索到1916篇文献。为保证分析的准确性和客观性,本文对文献进行数据标准化处理,将研究领域主要限定在生态学、环境学、地理学、休闲与旅游学、社会学、管理学,语言为英语,剔除与研究主题不相关文献,合并相似词段,最后得到451篇文献。在文献年度分布上,自20世纪90年代开始,国外对国家公园的研究缓慢增长,尤其2008年之后的文献大量涌现(图1)。
Fig.1 Annual distribution of international literature on national parks, 1986-2016

图1 1986-2016年国外国家公园领域研究文献数量年度分布

2.2 文献研究热点

文献关键词是研究思想核心内容的浓缩与提炼,在CitespaceⅢ中,高频度出现的关键词反映了该领域的研究热点。通过对国家公园的研究文献进行关键词共现分析(表1)可看出,出现频率最高的是保护(conservation)、国家公园(national park)、管理(management),且中心性和出现时间也排在前列;早期的研究以上述3个关键词为中心,关注国家公园的生态系统(ecosystem)、动态(dynamics)、自然旅游(nature-based tourism);2008年以后,研究热点则开始向保护地(protected areas)、游憩(recreation)、生态旅游(ecotourism)、影响(impact)、态度(attitude)、感知(perception)、社区(community)、野生动物(wildlife)、多样性(diversity)、干扰(disturbance)、气候变化(climate change)等内容拓展。从关键词共现分析可看出,有关国家公园的研究呈现从自然保护逐渐向国家公园与利益相关者、环境变化互动等内容延伸,从单一问题研究向多维度综合研究发展的趋势。
Tab.1 High-frequency keywords in national park research

表1 国家公园研究高频度关键词

关键词 出现频率 中心性 年份 关键词 出现频率 中心性 年份
conservation 113 0.49 1992 aynamics 22 0.00 1990
national parks 88 0.99 1992 community 21 0.00 2012
management 76 0.20 1995 patterns 20 0.00 2009
protected areas 55 0.13 2008 wildlife 19 0.20 2009
biodiversity 42 1.14 2009 perceptions 19 0.00 2012
tourism 40 0.98 2008 Africa 18 0.07 2012
recreation 31 0.13 2009 disturbance 14 0.00 2014
impacts 27 1.08 2010 nature-based tourism 14 0.99 1990
ecotourism 25 0.00 2010 ecosystem 13 0.00 1990
vegetation 24 0.00 2009 climate-change 13 0.00 2014
attitudes 24 1.06 2011 diversity 13 0.07 2009

2.3 研究方法分析

在451篇文献中,定量研究方法约占87.63%,定性研究方法约占12.37%,表明定量研究方法在国家公园研究中占有主导地位(表2)。定性研究方法主要用于国家公园发展模式、规划、运营管理研究,其中,结构化访谈、田野调查方法使用较多,分别占样本文献数量的6.65%、5.32%。定量研究方法则较为多元,其中问卷调查法、GIS/RS技术、旅行成本法、条件价值评估法运用较为广泛,分别占样本文献数量的13.75%、5.54%、4.43%、2.00%。国家公园研究对象的复杂性使其研究方法具有多元和综合化的趋势,定性与定量研究方法的结合更加紧密。
Tab.2 Methods used in national park research

表2 国外国家公园研究相关研究方法

研究方法 代表文献
定性研究
方法		 结构化访谈 Cihar et al, 2006; Mitchell et al, 2013; Austin et al, 2016
田野调查 Kang et al, 2012; Karki, 2013
话语分析 Acar et al, 2006; Puhakka et al, 2014
定量研究
方法		 问卷调查 Arnberger et al, 2012; Garavaglia et al, 2012; Wolf et al, 2015
RS、GIS分析 Southworth, 2004; Munroe et al, 2007; Tomczyk, 2011
条件价值评估法 Asafu-Adjaye et al, 2008; Getzner et al, 2015
旅行成本法 Heberling, 2009; Benson, 2013
多元分析法 Obua, 1997; Leung et al, 1999
计量经济分析 Neher et al, 2013
DEA法 Ma et al, 2009
建模法 Suffling et al, 2002; Tomczyk, 2011

3 主要研究内容

3.1 国家公园资源评估

国家公园资源包括动植物资源、地质、地貌、土壤、水文和空气资源(Suckall et al, 2009)。资源评估是国家公园进行规划和管理的前提,并为国家公园筛选、制定相关政策提供参考。由于国家公园在生态保护方面的突出意义,Mahan等(2009)认为,应从地方、区域、国家、跨国层面评估国家公园各类资源的重要程度,并提出了基于科学规划路径的国家公园资源评估框架。国家公园资源评估包括资源价值评估和游憩潜力评估。
资源价值评估主要对其生态系统服务价值进行货币化衡量,即通过条件价值评估法、支付意愿等方法揭示国家公园的价值存量,并通过货币形式表现。国家公园资源提供的生态系统服务价值包括资源供应、生物多样性维护以及为游憩和旅游活动提供机会等,通过货币价值评估,能直观地描述国家公园的吸引力,为国家公园收支政策的制定提供依据(Bernard et al, 2009)。由于国家公园在不同国家发展水平存在差异,目前尚无统一的资源评估标准,这给国际上对国家公园的规范和管理造成了一定难度。Gülez(1992)在总结各国经验的基础上,尝试从国际视野提出了国家公园资源价值评估指标(表3)。此外,景观质量、游径质量、生物多样性、栖息地质量、土地利用等也被认为是体现资源价值的重要指标(Asafu-Adjaye et al, 2008; Kelkit et al, 2010)。
Tab.3 Evaluation indicators of national park resources

表3 国家公园资源评价指标

指标 子指标 资源特征
自然资源 物理特征 独特的地质和地貌特征,如峡谷、峡湾、海滨、海湾、火山口、化石遗迹等
独特的水文特征,如海、湖、冰川、喷泉、沼泽、河口等
生物特征 植物：典型生态系统的代表,如特有、珍稀、濒危植物物种;特殊的植物群落
动物：珍稀、濒危动物物种栖息地;具有特殊意义的物种群落栖息地;受保护的陆地和海洋生态系统
审美特征 优美景观或具有审美价值的自然资源
具有审美吸引力或美学特征的景观格局
文化资源 历史/考古 具有历史或考古意义的区域/重大历史事件发生地
其他文化资源 建筑与艺术：具有代表性的区域、建筑和艺术;具有国家代表性的文化遗产
具有人类学、民族学和社会学意义的区域
传统土地利用区/传统农业生产区;具有突出的文化景观特征
游憩资源 因独特特征而具有游憩潜力
具有一般游憩潜力的区域
具有国家或跨国意义的资源 拥有具备独特/某一国际意义资源的区域
拥有具有独特/某一国家意义资源的区域
国家公园的地质地貌、生态以及文化资源具是生态旅游开发的重要依托,因此,游憩潜力评价也是国家公园资源评估的重要内容。与资源价值评估不同,游憩潜力评价更看重基于保护的前提下国家公园对公众游憩福利需求的满足程度,因此,游憩潜力评价更着眼于资源转换成各类游憩产品或营造游憩环境的可行性。Cetin等(2016)认为,国家公园游憩潜力是景观价值、气候价值、可进入性、游憩设施以及各类潜在消极因素的总和。生物多样性、生态完整性、景观质量、资源配置等是国家公园资源开发利用潜力评价的主要内容(Zhong et al, 2008; Lai et al, 2013)。

3.2 国家公园环境影响

国家公园不再被视为“孤岛”,不仅受自然环境变化的影响,也受到周边社区生产和游客活动影响(表4)。人类在国家公园内的活动主要包括游憩活动、旅游建设与经营活动、农业生产活动、公共交通使用、林业活动等。近年来,人类活动成为干扰自然生态系统的主要原因之一,对国家公园带来诸多消极影响,包括：①国家公园周边建筑密度不断上升、城镇和道路空间给国家公园空间带来挤压、公园内野生动物的栖息地遭受破坏、景观破碎化程度上升(Southworth et al, 2004; Gimmi et al, 2011);②公园敏感区域的游憩步道和森林道路的退化、土壤和植被破坏、森林物种减少(Obua, 1997; Tomczyk, 2011);③公共交通服务在提升私家车可进入性、降低交通堵塞、碳足迹方面有积极影响,但公园内公共交通使用次数、密度的增加以及使用模式的变化对公园造成生态干扰(Monz et al, 2016);④传统社区建筑被接待社会旅馆替代,宗教区域社区居民的收入构成发生变化(Padoa-Schioppa et al, 2008)。
Tab.4 Influencing factors of national park environment

表4 国家公园环境影响分析

影响因子 影响结果
气候/环境变化 景观格局变化、森林结构变化、旅游业发展变化、土地利用变化、生态系统功能弱化
游憩活动 道路退化、土壤侵蚀、土地利用变化
旅游建设 景观破碎化、土地利用变化、环境脆弱性增强、野生动物数量变化
农业生产 野生动物数量变化、动物栖息地变化
公共交通使用 降低交通拥堵、道路退化、土壤侵蚀
旅游经营 社区结构变化、居民收入结构变化、垃圾产生
林业活动 景观格局变化、动物栖息地变化、
此外,气候变化对国家公园的影响日渐明显,主要表现在：直接影响国家公园各项活动开展;通过与土地利用、入侵物种等因素的累积协同,对国家公园的生态系统功能和生物多样性产生重要影响(Hansen et al, 2014);影响游憩需求、游憩体验质量、旅游资源质量、土地利用,直接或间接影响国家公园旅游业的发展,从而导致游客量下降、游客行为难以预测等(Richardson et al, 2005; Steuer, 2010)。

3.3 国家公园发展模式

虽然世界各国国家公园发展不同程度借鉴美国经验,但并不是对美国模式的简单复制,国情的差异导致国家公园发展模式在全球产生分异。由于自然条件、管理目标、制度安排、管理实施、土地所有权、资金安排等的差异,目前世界上已形成了美国荒野模式、欧洲模式、澳大利亚模式、英国模式等具有代表性的国家公园发展模式(表5)(Wescott, 1991; Barker et al, 2008)。各种模式体现的是不同国情下国家公园治理的多重价值取向和战略侧重,本身并无优劣、高低之分。
Tab.5 Main national park development models worldwide

表5 世界具有代表性的国家公园发展模式

国家公园发展模式 特 征
美国荒野模式 IUCN第II类保护地
首要目标是保护和提供游憩机会
国有土地所有权
主要包括大片的原始荒野地
宏观的组织机构内的独立国家公园管理主体,如国家公园管理局
欧洲模式 IUCN第II类保护地
首要目标是保护
土地公有制和土地私有制并存
居住地景观和非居住地景观的混合
澳大利亚模式 IUCN第II类保护地
国家公园定义比IUCN更严格,其设定的目的主要是保护
各州政府对其辖区内的国家公园行使保护职责,并提供财政和人力支持
自然保护局是自然保护机关,对外代表国家签订相关协议,对内协调各州、地区之间的自然保护合作
英国模式 IUCN第V类保护地
包括2个目标：保护自然景观以及提升游憩机会;国家公园还负有提升社会经济福利的职责;当目标之间发生冲突时,将依据桑福德原则进行调整
土地私有制
居住地景观为主
国家公园管理机构是法定的规划机构
美国国家公园模式是建立在“出于国家利益,使自然资源免于受人类活动破坏”的理念之上,因此美国国家公园采用荒野路径,即实行自然与社会的隔离,该理念对澳大利亚、加拿大等国家公园发展影响较大。但是,世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)指出,美国这种 “岛屿”式的遗产保护路径是对自然与社会关系的扭曲,造成人地关系矛盾加剧(Barker et al, 2008),因此对其他国家和区域难以适用。近年来,随着边远地区保护与社区之间的冲突日渐上升,国家公园的发展理念寻求达到更广泛的目标,尤其是平衡社会与自然之间的关系。欧洲多数国家公园发展模式较倾向于学习美国模式,实行较为严格的保护。不过,人类活动形成的独特的,具有审美、生态和文化价值的景观也被纳入欧洲国家公园范围内,社会经济发展成为仅次于自然保护的第二目标。英国则实施不同于欧洲其他国家的模式,游憩维度被置于国家公园发展目标的首位,因此,国家公园对应IUCN中的第V类保护地,且多处在城市近郊(Locke et al, 2005)。与美国不同,英国国家公园的土地几乎都为私有土地,包括大量农场、乡村,因此,国家公园发展实际本身就是乡村发展和经营的组成部分,国家公园更多地采用相关准则协调保护与社会经济发展的关系,以保障公众的游憩权(Hall et al, 2009)。
部分发展中国家和地区在学习世界国家公园经验的基础上,探索了符合国情的发展模式。越南作为发展中国家,不适用于传统的高度集中的国家公园管理模式。越南国家公园管理模式经历了省级行政管理、国有企业管理、半国营企业管理3个阶段。随着分权管理的趋势明显,越南创建了国家公园的公私共存管理模式,该模式的特点包括：政府拥有土地所有权;国家公园收入来源包括门票、特许经营权许可、旅游收入相关税收;政府、私人企业、联营企业共为管理主体(Ly et al, 2016)。北爱尔兰在探索国家公园建设模式的过程中,面临着一系列挑战,包括经济发展与环境可持续、社区民族身份认同差异等。Bell等(2015)提出,爱尔兰国家公园模式设计应注意：首要目标是实现环境保护与社区经济社会发展的平衡;采用混合土地所有权模式,其中中小私人所有权占大多数;当地政府制定国家公园关键规划,国家公园管理机构是法定的咨询机构。由此可见,国家公园发展模式的探索应具有明确的目标,并根据国情进行不断修正。

3.4 国家公园规划

国家公园规划着眼于厘清资源状况、协调各方关系、规范管理行动,有助于实现国家公园发展的使命,保护资源不受损害。Eagles等(2002)从国家公园游客管理、旅游监测、旅游服务与基础设施建设、旅游与当地社区、市场营销与财务、旅游发展政策等视角较为全面地阐述了国家公园中规划的框架与管理要点。近年来,由于利益相关者的多元化及其对国家公园管理的认识愈加深刻,国家公园的规划日趋复杂。越来越多学者意识到,过去“专家导向”的传统规划方法难以为决策提供充分的信息,而适应性管理规划和情景规划正逐渐得到理论和实践领域的重视(表6)(Sanders, 1996; Ernst et al, 2013)。在国家公园规划中,气候变化、生态保护、利益相关者等是重要的考虑因素,因此,强调社区参与、气候变化情景模拟、游客市场细分等理念是国家公园规划的趋势(Glick, 2011; Pettebone et al, 2013)。
Tab.6 Comparison of different planning models for national parks

表6 不同国家公园规划方法比较

规划方法 规划框架/步骤 适用条件 优缺点
传统规划 ①愿景;②规划指导原则;③战略目标;④行动优先顺序;⑤规划实施;⑥监测与评估 高可控度,低不确定性 优点：框架明确;适用范围广
缺点：缺乏弹性
适应性管
理规划		 ①确立明确的目标;②制定管理规划;③制定监测计划;④实施管理与监测计划;⑤数据分析、交流结果;⑥使用结果进行适应性管理和学习 高可控度,高不确定性 优点：适用于解决短期/长期灾难性后果的行动;弹性较好
缺点：缺乏长期的监测资源;政治和制度设计难以跟上管理实践的发展;适应性管理难以控制具体结果
情景规划 ①背景分析;②设定未来情景(定性、定量);③为不同情景提供管理选择;④评估管理效果 低可控度,高不确定性 优点：有助于决策者在不确定环境下制定有针对性决策;有助于完善应对不确定性的监测项目设计;增强管理行动的应变能力
缺点：要素的复杂性使情景的设计难度较大

3.5 国家公园运营管理

3.5.1 管理经验总结
自国家公园建立以来,各国根据各自国情探索出一套适用于自身发展的管理体系(表7),包括美国(Lawson et al, 2003)、日本(Hiwasaki, 2005)、荷兰(Beunen et al, 2008)、丹麦(Lund et al, 2009)、墨西哥(Stamieszkin et al, 2009)、南威尔士(Wilson et al, 2009)、斐济(Farrelly, 2011)、南非(Zhou et al, 2011)、乌干达(Ahebwa et al, 2012)等。总体上看,国家公园的管理有两大理念：基于生态系统导向理念和基于社区发展导向理念。在发展中国家和发达国家公园管理过程中,两大理念运用的侧重程度不同：发达国家较为注重采用多种手段维护生态系统完整,发展中国家则更侧重于协调国家公园发展与周边利益相关者的关系,实现收益共享。
Tab.7 Park management experiences in selected countries and regions

表7 部分国家和地区国家公园管理经验

区域 管理经验
丹麦 聘请专家成立咨询小组
乌干达 收益共享、协同资源管理协议(CRMAs)
南威尔士 公私合作模式(PPP)
斐济 社区参与生态旅游发展;民主治理
南非 土地改革;制定旅游发展政策、水供应政策、大象管理制度
美国 支持基础生态研究、可接受改变极限(LAC)、游客体验与资源保护(VERP);长期环境监测;制定国家公园温室气体排放清单;适应性管理
荷兰 门户社区管理
墨西哥 严格的公园生态系统监测;加强利益相关者之间的交流;环境宣传和教育;公园组织结构调整、优化资金来源;债务—自然资源转换
日本 公园管理采用自下而上的决策方法;建立覆盖政府边界和涉及当地社区的公园管理系统
加拿大 分区管理
3.5.2 管理效果评估
管理效果评估框架涵盖国家公园法律地位、资源利用、空间管制、管理目标、游客教育、社区共管、定期工作计划、边界划分、服务设施、营销管理、资金来源、员工培训等,研究者通过结构化访谈、开放式访谈、实地调研、构建旅游指数等方式对这些管理活动进行综合衡量与监测(Blackstock et al, 2008; Kolahi et al, 2013)。基于国家公园设立的目标,对其管理效果的评估指标主要包括可持续性指标、收益性指标和吸引力指标(表8)(Ma et al, 2009; Mayer, 2014)。相当一部分学者认为,在国家公园管理中,适应性管理是国家公园成功实践的重要因素,并在国家公园管理机构在不同水平和范围内协调个人和集体间的活动中起到不同作用(Clark et al, 2011)。
Tab.8 Main indicators of management effectiveness in national parks

表8 国家公园管理效果主要评估指标

评价指标 指标涵义及内容
可持续性指标 国家公园管理能促进环境保护、社区发展、游客负责任行为等;子指标包括利益相关者满意度、生态系统完整度、社区发展、设施有效性等
收益性指标 评估国家公园经济效益;子指标包括国家公园活动创造的收入、成本支出、成本效益比
吸引力指标 国家公园管理与运行带来的市场吸引力;子指标包括公园产品组合度、公园网站排名度等
3.5.3 专项管理
(1) 游客管理
游客在国家公园内的各类游憩行为不可避免会对生态环境造成冲击。游客对自然的感知和态度,是影响其行为的重要因素,其中,环境伦理价值观是较受关注的因素之一。有学者将国家公园游客的环境伦理价值观分为“人类中心主义”和“生态中心主义”倾向,两者对国家公园内的旅游与环境、环境保护、可持续旅游发展方面的态度差异明显(表9)：坚持“人类中心主义”的游客认为国家公园的旅游开发价值大于其环境价值,因而对环境保护态度并不积极;坚持“生态中心主义”的游客态度则相反(Xu et al, 2014)。此外,游客行为还受年龄、职业、交通工具、公园设施和可进入性、信息技术等的影响(Pergams et al, 2006; Slocum et al, 2016)。为了实现游憩和生态保护的平衡,国家公园管理者采取各种措施最大程度降低游客行为的负面影响,包括门票价格调节、限制使用、环境教育、场地管理等(Schwartz et al, 2006; Suckall et al, 2009)。各国国家公园相关管理机构根据实际情况开发了相应的游客管理工具,如游憩机会谱(ROS)、可接受的改变极限(LAC)、游客行为管理过程(VAMP)、旅游管理优化模型(TOMN)等。
Tab.9 A comparison of attitudes and behaviors concerning national parks between anthropocentrism and ecocentrism

表9 人类中心主义与生态中心主义对国家公园的态度和行为对比

人类中心主义 生态中心主义
态度 将自然视为可开发的资源;经济发展是人类发展所必须;人类能战胜自然;国家公园旅游开发价值大于保护价值 承认自然的内在价值;人类与自然具有同等价值;人类是自然的一部分;环境保护优先于国家公园开发
行为 较少从事环境保护类活动;较多接受国家公园提供的服务 尽可能不破坏公园原始环境;较少接受国家公园提供的服务;较多体验国家公园自然、荒野和当地文化
(2) 社区发展管理
社区发展是国家公园可持续发展的重要组成部分,周边社区居民的生计对自然资源的依赖一定程度上与国家公园保护目标产生冲突,因此,基于社区发展的合作共管被视为解决人与公园矛盾的重要途径。社区发展管理的手段主要包括：①收益共享,如提供就业机会、引入相关扶贫项目、给予获取信息的平等机会(Austin et al, 2016);②建立缓冲区,合理控制土地利用,为周边社区提供相应发展机会;③社区环境教育,增强社区对国家公园保护与发展的理解;④建立资金与技术支持机制,例如国家公园门票、特殊区域生态系服务费用、资源使用利润返还、设立保护基金、债务—自然资源转换(Nepal et al, 1995);⑤完善合作制度和话语权,建立互信,提升土地所有权意识(Swain, 2001)。但是,在社区管理过程中,仍存在一些问题,如：中央机构与地方机构之间力量悬殊;社区本身利益被忽视;收益在本地社区中分配不平衡;某些不受社区欢迎的建设仍被强制实施(Kaltenborn et al, 2008)。
(3) 资源与环境管理
资源管理的目标是保护自然资源,包括可转化的产品、审美价值和生态过程。受生态系统的复杂性、全球变化、游客期望的变化以及不断扩大的社区发展规模等多重因素的影响,国家公园资源管理面临诸多挑战。在不同目标指引下,世界各国国家公园相关管理机构开发了不同的管理工具,包括可接受的改变极限(LAC)、游客影响管理(VIM)、最优化旅游管理模型(TOMM)等,这些管理工具不仅仅是游客管理的工具,同时也是资源与环境管理的重要框架(van Wilgen, 2012)。国家公园资源与环境管理的影响因素复杂,因此,适应性管理理念广泛用于应对国家公园内生态系统变化的不确定性,包括适应性规划、合理建设和使用设施、制定限制活动政策、明确生态分区管理、构建相应法律框架等(Brook et al, 2006; Mylonopoulos et al, 2011)。
资源监测是国家公园资源与环境管理重要内容以及评价其管理效果的重要手段,包括对空气质量、水质、植物群落、野生动物等的监测以及建立资源清单(Schmoldt et al, 2001)。Fancy等(2009)提出公园生态监测的步骤包括：①明确定义目标和问题;②编译和整合现有信息;③建立概念模型;④优化和选择指标;⑤整体样本设计;⑥建立监控制度;⑦建立数据管理、分析、报告程序;监测指标主要包括土壤、树木、游径、土地覆盖、景观完整性、野生动物数量、野生动物栖息地数量等(Kati et al, 2009; Leung et al, 2011)。

4 研究述评

从国外国家公园的研究历程来看,其研究视角经历了从纯粹的“生物中心主义”理念到逐渐重视国家公园与多方利益相关者的交互过程,其研究特征包括：
(1) 从研究区域来看,国家公园研究主要集中在美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰、南非等国家公园发展历史较为悠久的地区,而对于新兴区域国家公园发展则关注较少。
(2) 由于世界各国在政治体制、文化价值、经济发展水平的差异,使得国家公园在世界范围内的发展既存在共性的问题,也有个性化问题。目前研究多以个案研究为主,且主要集中在自然类(如森林型、海岸型)公园研究,结论具有特定区域性,缺乏普适性,同时缺乏对较为公认的国家公园运作模式的探讨。
(3) 国家公园作为一种特殊的保护地管理制度,涉及的利益相关者众多,各方利益的博弈影响着国家公园的发展。近年来,已经有相当部分涉及有关周边社区发展、构建非商业性合作伙伴关系、社区参与机制的研究。但是,从“缓冲区—周边—外围”角度,对不同空间区域的社区与国家公园发展之间的互动与博弈研究较少;对国家公园商业性合作伙伴关系构建中的运营模式、利益分配、土地权属、特许经营等问题的探讨仍需加深。
(4) 从研究基础理论上看,该领域研究的交叉性和集成性特征明显,距离衰减理论、相对剥夺理论、社会表征理论等多学科理论被引入国家公园研究中,体现了国家公园研究对象的复杂性和视角的多元化。
(5) 从方法体系上看,国家公园研究充分借鉴了多学科方法体系,如心理量表测度、多元分析法、计量经济法等,研究方法趋于向定性和定量的综合运用,结论的科学性较强。但大部分研究主要为通过经验数据对国家公园现状的分析,对国家公园在多重因素干扰下未来的发展、演进研究较少,因此,通过构建模型预测推演未来的发展趋势将为国家公园发展提供预见性参考。

5 对中国未来国家公园研究的启示

在中国大力推进国家公园体制建设的大背景下,应进一步借鉴国外的研究成果,加强国家公园的基础理论研究,重点关注以下5个方面,以此构建中国国家公园研究体系,更好地指导国家公园的可持续发展。
(1) 国家公园立法研究。整合目前各类保护地管理条例、部门规章,应在国家层面研究建立统一的国家公园法,为国家公园统一管理提供法律依据;细化法规内容,在国家公园机构设置、分区管理、特许经营、资源保护等方面为国家公园管理提供框架性指导;研究国家公园法与保护地其他现有法规的融合与协调,形成以国家公园法为中心,多种条例、规章、制度等为辅的法律体系;研究制定公众参与国家公园发展的制度和程序,保证国家公园的公益性和决策科学性。
(2) 国家公园发展模式研究。从国际经验来看,各国国家公园发展模式演绎的变量主要包括国家公园划定标准、目标和重点、管理机构层级、基础设施、土地所有权、社区参与等。在中国国家公园发展模式研究中,应在明确国家公园建设目标的指引下,理顺各类保护地的功能、定位、资源品质和利用强度,参照国际经验,制定国家公园遴选标准,明确国家公园范围,构建中国国家公园体系;在中国式分权的大背景下,研究现有保护地垂直管理和属地管理的优缺点,理顺中央和地方政府的事权、深入分析国家公园管理机构与相关部门之间的关系,构建层级分明、结构合理、职责清晰的国家公园管理体制;对于有条件建设国家公园的地区,研究租用、赎买、置换、土地补偿等土地流转方案,保证国家公园的全民性。
(3) 国家公园管理研究。在充分认识到中国现阶段保护地管理存在问题的基础上,重点加强国家公园生态系统完整性维护、游客行为、公园分区、资源与环境、特许经营项目、合作共管等方面的研究,借鉴国外先进的管理工具,同时为适应自然及社会环境的不断变化,构建“影响—适应—管理”的适应性管理研究框架。
(4) 社区参与模式与机制研究。人与公园关系一直是国外国家公园研究的重点内容,中国国家公园社区研究应借鉴国外经验以及中国现有生态旅游社区发展经验,建立一套涵盖社区经济发展、社会文化、环境保护在内的社区可持续发展评价体系,探索不同区域社区参与国家公园发展的模式,深化国家公园内及周边不同社区参与机制研究,实现社区和国家公园的良性互动发展
(5) 国家公园环境监测与评估研究。环境保护是国家公园设立的目标和基础,中国应以研究过去国家公园的环境影响评估为基础,整合先进的研究方法,突破现有的时空观念,进一步利用情景模拟、构建预测模型等方法对国家公园发展趋势进行模拟与评估,实现环境监测与评估的可预测性。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within
[1]
陈耀华, 黄丹, 颜思琦. 2014. 论国家公园的公益性、国家主导性和科学性[J]. 地理科学, 34(3): 257-264.<p>国家公园作为一种严格保护并合理利用自然文化资源的可持续发展理念和举措而在全球得到普遍认可和蓬勃发展。国际上的国家公园因为国情不同而有多种体制模式，但是国家公园的根本特性是共同一致、必须维护的。公益性、国家主导性和科学性这三大特性是国家公园的根本特性，其中公益性是国家公园设立的根本目的，它包括了为公众利益而设、对公众低廉收费、使公众受到教育、让公众积极参与等方面，而国家主导性和科学性则是践行公益性的两大保障，前者要求国家确立、国家管理、国家立法、国家维护和爱国主义教育，后者则要求建立科学的国家公园体系、科学的规划、科学的分区和科学的经营利用等。中国国家公园的建立，面临着国情特殊、现行保护地多头管理、保护利用压力大等问题，应该利用风景名胜区等保护地开展试点，制定统一的中国国家公园标准，采用准入制度，并逐步探索统一的管理体系和法规体系，最终建立统筹管理的、中国特色的国家公园制度。</p>

[Chen Y H, Huang D, Yan S Q.2014. Discussions on public welfare, state dominance and scientificity of national park[J]. Scientia Geographica Sinica, 34(3): 257-264.]

[2]
郭宇航. 2013. 新西兰国家公园及其借鉴价值研究[D]. 呼和浩特: 内蒙古大学.

[Guo Y H.2013. On the New Zealand national park and ecological protection of ecological management in China exemplary role[D]. Hohehot, China: Inner Mongolia University.]

[3]
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[Luo J H.2013. A study on the establishment and the standards for national parks in China[D]. Fuzhou, China: Fujian Normal University.]

[4]
宋瑞. 2015. 国家公园治理体系建设的国际实践与中国探索[N]. 中国旅游报, 2015-01-26(7).

[Song R.2015. Guojia gongyuan zhili tixi jianshe de guoji shijian yu Zhongguo tansuo[N]. China Tourism News, 2015-01-26(7).

[5]
杨锐. 2003. 美国国家公园的立法和执法[J]. 中国园林, 19(5): 63-66.介绍美国国家公园立法和执法的基本情况，包括国家公园基本法（规定了美国国家公国管理局的基本职责)；授权法（明确规定该国家公国单位的边界、它的重要性以及其他适用于该国家公园单位的内容)；原野法（它使美国国会有权命名联邦公有土地成为国家原野保护体系的一部分)；原生自然与风景河流法（目的是为了建立一个系统，以保护那些具有杰出的风景、休憩、地质、野生动物、历史、文化和相似价值的河流，使其保持自然状况)；国家风景与历史游路法（目的是为了促进国家风景游路网络的形成)；国家环境政策法（美国环境保护方面的基本大法)；部门规章和其他相关联邦法律。

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[6]
张海霞. 2010. 国家公园的旅游规制研究[D]. 上海: 华东师范大学.

[Zhang H X.2010. Tourism regulation on national parks[D]. Shanghai, China: East China Normal University.]

[7]
Acar C, Kurdoglu B C, Kurdoglu O, et al.2006. Public preferences for visual quality and management in the Kackar Mountains National Park (Turkey)[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 13(6): 499-512.There are 37 national parks in Turkey, encompassing the most important mountain ecosystems, with high biological, natural, cultural and historical diversity. These parks also have aesthetic and recreational potential, and are valuable components within the country's nature protection programmes. Globally, a landscape can be regarded as the face of an ecosystem and constitutes a relationship between natural structure and visual features. There have been several studies on whether visual quality can provide indicators for landscape planning. Visual quality can also be assessed as a manifesto for community participation. This paper attempts to extend the understanding of visual quality assessment for national parks, using the Kackar Mountains National Park (KMNP) in north-eastern Turkey as an example. A detailed survey of visual quality preferences, landscape factors (10 main and 40 sub-factors) and semantic factors (naturalness, variety, fascination, vividness, unity, interesting and exciting) affecting these preferences was made using 30 represenative slides selected from the park. The highest preference was found to be 6.54, while the lowest was 2.30. Regression analysis enabled us to determine the relationship between visual quality and visual landscape attributes. The Rvalue for naturalness was 0.482, while naturalness together with lake and fog percentage was 0.641. The assessment of preferences for the studied views in various landscape units can be evaluated and used for land-use decisions and future planning in KMNP.

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[8]
Ahebwa W M, van der Duim R, Sandbrook C.2012. Tourism revenue sharing policy at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: A policy arrangements approach[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(3): 377-394.Debates on how to deliver conservation benefits to communities living close to protected high-biodiversity areas have preoccupied conservationists for over 20 years. Tourism revenue sharing (TRS) has become a widespread policy intervention in Africa and elsewhere where charismatic populations of wildlife remain. This paper analyzes TRS policy at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda, from a policy arrangements perspective. It is based on data collected at BINP and three surrounding parishes, using qualitative methods. It concludes that the governance capacity of the TRS policy arrangement at BINP is low due to the structural incongruence of the dimensions of the policy arrangement (analyzed in terms of actors, resources, rules of the game and discourses). Despite the participatory rhetoric of policy reforms, the Uganda Wildlife Authority remains the most powerful actor: it has control over resources and consequently determines the rules of the game. Local communities do not feel adequately compensated for conservation costs. This issue is exacerbated by weak communications with local people, problems of fair distribution locally and nationally, corruption claims and powerful local elites. To maximize TRS' ability to contribute to conservation through development, inequities in the design of the TRS and dispersion of benefits need to be addressed.

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[9]
Arnberger A, Eder R, Allex B, et al.2012. Relationships between national-park affinity and attitudes towards protected area management of visitors to the Gesaeuse National Park, Austria[J]. Forest Policy and Economics, 19: 48-55.Managing protected areas requires information about the proportion of visitors attracted by the national park label and visitor attitudes towards protected area management. This study explored attitudes of visitor segments towards visitor and environmental management in the Gesaeuse National Park, Austria. The segmentation was based on the degree of visitor affinity to the national park. On-site, face-to-face interviews of 405 visitors were conducted in the national park during the summer and autumn of 2008. Three segments were formed based on their national-park affinity. Two-thirds of the visitors had a low affinity. The proportion of visitors with a low national-park affinity was comparable to other European national parks. The respondents with a low affinity had more negative attitudes towards nature conservation, natural processes, visitor management and the regional economic impact of the Gesaeuse National Park The study results support national park management in the development of tourism marketing strategies and public awareness campaigns targeted on visitor segments. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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[10]
Asafu-Adjaye J, Tapsuwan S.2008. A contingent valuation study of scuba diving benefits: Case study in Mu Ko Similan Marine National Park, Thailand[J]. Tourism Management, 29(6): 1122-1130.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Coral reefs, a major source of marine tourism, are under threat worldwide due to human activities. There is an urgent need for information that could be used to promote efficient marine park management. In this study the economic benefits associated with scuba diving in Mu Ko Similan Marine National Park, Thailand, is estimated using a single- and double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation survey design. The results indicate that divers are willing to pay about US$27.07&ndash;62.64 per person per annum on average, resulting in aggregate benefits of between US$932,940 and US$2.1 million per annum. The present value of these aggregate benefits ranges between US$31 and US$71 million, using a social discount rate of 3%. The policy implications for park management are discussed.</p>

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[11]
Austin R, Thompson N, Garrod G.2016. Understanding the factors underlying partnership working: A case study of Northumberland National Park, England[J]. Land Use Policy, 50: 115-124.Although rural partnership working is a well-researched area, less attention has been paid to the particular challenges in IUCN Category V protected areas. This paper explores the policy and practice of partnership working in a case study Category V area orthumberland National Park, England. Qualitative research was conducted through documentary analysis and semi-structured interviews with a sample of 23 stakeholders involved in the management of this protected area. It was found that a convoluted institutional history has shaped the present day approach to its management. The processes driving partnership working were understood in terms of governance factors with a relatively high degree of control and behavioural factors with a relatively low degree of control. There was a tacit acceptance among actors that success was dependent upon uncontrollable factors and in particular inter-personal relations between representatives of stakeholder bodies. These findings are important for all IUCN Category V protected areas reliant upon working within stakeholder partnerships to achieve sustainable development objectives. Management bodies can benefit from examining the history of these often complex webs of relationships and the implications for communications between organisations if they are to understand the processes that underpin this form of governance.

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[12]
Barker A, Stockdale A.2008. Out of the wilderness? Achieving sustainable development within Scottish national parks[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 88(1): 181-193.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The introduction of national parks to Scotland represents a significant shift in the evolution of protected area management within the UK. Although the <em>National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000</em> adopts the established national park aims of conservation and recreation, provisions are also made for advancing notions of sustainable development. This paper provides an assessment of the degree to which the Scottish national park model is likely to enable the realisation of multiple national park objectives. Five key areas are considered for analysis. These relate to management aims, institutional arrangements, implementation, democratic accountability and funding. The evaluation reveals that whilst management provisions have been established in accordance with international sustainable development guidelines, a number of concerns relating to operational processes remain.</p>

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[13]
Bell J, Stockdale A.2015. Evolving national park models: The emergence of an economic imperative and its effect on the contested nature of the 'national' park concept in Northern Ireland[J]. Land Use Policy, 49: 213-226.National park models have evolved in tandem with the emergence of a multifunctional countryside. Sustainable development has been added to the traditional twin aims of conservation and recreation. This is typified by recent national park designations, such as the Cairngorms National Park in Scotland. A proposed Mournes national park in Northern Ireland has evolved a stage further with a model of national park to deliver national economic goals envisaged by government. This seeks to commodify the natural landscape. This paper compares Cairngorm and Mourne stakeholders views on the principal features of both models: park aims, management structures and planning functions. While Cairngorm stakeholders were largely positive from the outset, the model of national park introduced is not without criticism. Conversely, Mourne stakeholders have adopted an anti-national park stance. Nevertheless, the model of national park proposed possessing a strong economic imperative, an absence of the Sandford Principle as a means to manage likely conflicts, and lacking any planning powers in its own right, may still be insufficient to bring about widespread support for a Mourne national park. Such a model is also likely to accelerate the degradation of the Mourne landscape. Competing national identities (British and Irish) provide an additional dimension to the national park debate in Northern Ireland. Deep ideological cleavages are capable of derailing the introduction of a national park irrespective of the model proposed. In Northern Ireland the national park debate is not only about reconciling environmental and economic interests but also political and ethno-national differences.

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[14]
Benson C, Watson P, Taylor G, et al.2013. Who visits a national park and what do they get out of it: A joint visitor cluster analysis and travel cost model for Yellowstone National Park[J]. Environmental management, 52(4): 917-928.Yellowstone National Park visitor data were obtained from a survey collected for the National Park Service by the Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho. Travel cost models have been conducted for national parks in the United States; however, this study builds on these studies and investigates how benefits vary by types of visitors who participate in different activities while at the park. Visitor clusters were developed based on activities in which a visitor participated while at the park. The clusters were analyzed and then incorporated into a travel cost model to determine the economic value (consumer surplus) that the different visitor groups received from visiting the park. The model was estimated using a zero-truncated negative binomial regression corrected for endogenous stratification. The travel cost price variable was estimated using both 1/3 and 1/4 the wage rate to test for sensitivity to opportunity cost specification. The average benefit across all visitor cluster groups was estimated at between $235 and $276 per person per trip. However, per trip benefits varied substantially across clusters; from $90 to $103 for the "value picnickers," to $185-$263 for the "backcountry enthusiasts," $189-$278 for the "do it all adventurists," $204-$303 for the "windshield tourists," and $323-$714 for the "creature comfort" cluster group.

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[15]
Bernard F, de Groot R S, Campos J J.2009. Valuation of tropical forest services and mechanisms to finance their conservation and sustainable use: A case study of Tapantí National Park, Costa Rica[J]. Forest Policy and Economics, 11(3): 174-183.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The Tapanti National Park in Costa Rica comprises a precious but vulnerable tropical rain forest area. The monetary values of ecosystem services that are provided by this park are estimated in order to assess the mechanisms to finance the park's conservation and sustainable use. The main ecosystem services provided by the park are water supply (for drinking and electricity generation), maintenance of biodiversity and opportunities for recreation and tourism. Based on interviews with over 300 stakeholders, the study identified the main beneficiaries of these ecosystem services. The monetary benefits of the three services combined were estimated at approx. US$2.5&nbsp;million/year, equivalent to an average of US$43/year for the total park area (58.323&nbsp;ha). Compared to other, similar areas, the recreation values are relatively low (approx. 0.6&nbsp;million US$/year) while the water-supply service is very high: approx. 1.7&nbsp;million US$/year for hydro-electricity and approx. 0.2&nbsp;million US$/year for drinking water. Both the low recreation and high water supply values can be correlated with the high rainfall of over 6500&nbsp;mm/year.</p><p id="">To develop payment-mechanisms for the conservation and sustainable use of Tapant&iacute; National Park, the main stakeholders were asked about their willingness to pay for the maintenance of the services they benefited from. Different financing mechanisms have been explored, such as taxes, user fees, individual and corporate donations, friends' schemes, and voluntary contractual arrangements. In general, most of the stakeholders were willing to pay for the ecosystem services they received. These potential payments amounted to at least 400,000&nbsp;US$/year, which excludes the hydro-electricity beneficiary. Even without payments from the hydro-electricity company, this amount suffices to cover the current (245,000&nbsp;US$) and urgently needed additional budget (100,000&nbsp;US$) for the National Park management.</p>

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[16]
Beunen R, Regnerus H D, Jaarsma C F.2008. Gateways as a means of visitor management in national parks and protected areas[J]. Tourism Management, 29(1): 138-145.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Managers of national parks and other protected areas need to balance visitor needs with conservation objectives. In Western Europe, these areas are often part of a &ldquo;living landscape&rdquo; where people live and work and where the area roads are used not only by visitors but also by utilitarian local bound and through traffic. When recreating in these areas, many visitors park at a gateway as the main entrance point to the nature areas. As such, gateways are a useful means of visitor management. Two case studies at gateway locations in the Veluwe area in the Netherlands show that gateways can tempt many visitors to park their car at the gateway, which results in reduced traffic flow within an area. To attract visitors, it is important that a gateway be strategically located (e.g. at the border of the area) and that the facilities and activities offered at a gateway meet visitor demands.</p>

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[17]
Blackstock K L, White V, McCrum G, et al.2008. Measuring responsibility: An appraisal of a Scottish national park's sustainable tourism indicators[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(3): 276-297.Descriptions of the ambivalent role that tourism plays in sustaining fragile environments, communities and cultures are well rehearsed in the tourism literature. Tourism indicators are increasingly seen as a way to measure and monitor impacts (both positive and negative) in order to practice adaptive management. Responsible tourism focuses on the choices made by visitors and their hosts, emphas...

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[18]
Brook B W, Bowman D M J S, Bradshaw C J A, et al.2006. Managing an endangered Asian bovid in an Australian national park: The role and limitations of ecological-economic models in decision-making[J]. Environmental Management, 38(3): 463-469.<a name="Abs1"></a>Should north Australia &#8217;s extensive populations of feral animals be eradicated for conservation, or exploited as a rare opportunity for Indigenous enterprise in remote regions? We examine options for a herd of banteng, a cattle species endangered in its native Asian range but abundant in Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, an Aboriginal land managed jointly by traditional owners and a conservation agency in the Northern Territory of Australia. We reflect on the paradoxes that arise when trying to deal effectively with such complex and contested issues in natural resource management using decision-support tools (ecological-economic models), by identifying the trade-offs inherent in protecting values whilst also providing incomes for Indigenous landowners.

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[19]
Cetin M, Sevik H.2016. Evaluating the recreation potential of Ilgaz Mountain National Park in Turkey[J]. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188(1): 52.In recent years, natural areas have become a preferred recreation area for people looking to escape their busy urban lives. The world has become so complicated that people now seek solace in areas of nature. Recreational activities conducted in natural areas, such as Ilgaz Mountain National Park, should be respectful of the environment to ensure balance and no negative environmental impact. This balance should safeguard environmental protection and only be used with the right to establish recreation planning. National parks are protected areas where the most beautiful wonders of nature exist. Thus, urban planning for recreation, and demand for recreation areas, must demonstrate both the potential of recreation resources and the protection of Ilgaz Mountain National Park. Urban open and green spaces have an important function, and in this study, it has been looked at Ilgaz Mountain National Park to examine the current situation. The aim of this study is to ensure the sustainability of natural and cultural resources via an evaluation to reveal the necessary practices and precautions regarding the area's recreational potential. As a result, Ilgaz Mountain National Park's recreation potential was found to be 72 %, and thus, it is considered to be an area of high recreation potential.

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[20]
Cihar M, Stankova J.2006. Attitudes of stakeholders towards the Podyji/Thaya River Basin National Park in the Czech Republic[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 81(3): 273-285.In August 2000, a survey of public opinion was carried out among visitors, local residents and representatives of local self-governments in the territory of the Podyji/Thaya River Basin National Park in the Czech Republic. The goal was to obtain stakeholders opinions and attitudes towards nature conservation, the National Park and tourism within the territory which used to be closed to the public for 40 years due to the Iron Curtain. Without the knowledge of opinions of stakeholders it is not possible to manage nature conservation and development in the protected area properly. Using the method of direct interviews, 646 questionnaires where collected, of which 523 were from visitors and tourists, 115 from local residents and 8 from mayors of towns/villages. The questionnaires were analysed in order to detect differences in attitudes among the respondent groups in the following thematic areas: (a) the National Park, its environment and perception of it by respondents; (b) relationship of respondents to the territory; (c) tourism and attitudes towards recreational activities; (d) the Administration of the National Park and evaluation of its work; and (e) economic impact of tourism for local communities. One section of the study focused on comparing the attitudes between local inhabitants and mayors and the other section presents a collation of opinions from locals, mayors and tourists. Although a positive evaluation of the national park dominated the results, some negative attitudes and experiences were identified among locals. In addition, the situation also differed within communities. Results also indicated a relatively strong relationship to the territory by locals, but low job opportunities and income from tourism. The level of tourism intensity was perceived as an increasing and sometimes disturbing factor for local communities; motoring was observed as being the most negative activity for nature. The Administration of the Podyji/Thaya River Basin National Park was sometimes criticised and the communication with the community was not always evaluated satisfactorily. All groups of respondents identified waste management to be the most pressing issue. Identification of differences in attitudes of interviewed respondents may be effectively used in planning environmental management and sustainable tourism development in the area.

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[21]
Clark J R A, Clarke R.2011. Local sustainability initiatives in English national parks: What role for adaptive governance[J]. Land Use Policy, 28(1): 314-324.Adaptive governance has assumed growing importance in natural resource management literatures, emphasising learning and adaptation among actors at different political administrative levels and geographic scales as a precondition for the emergence of sustainable development. Here we assess this claim by examining five case studies of 'good practice' in sustainability, drawn from a national survey conducted in English National Parks. Specifically, we evaluate whether (1) adaptive governance characteristics are present in these 'good practice' initiatives, and (2) what governance role, if any, National Park Authorities have played in mediating individual and collective activities and behaviours within these projects at different levels and scales. We conclude with a critical assessment of the capacity of the adaptive governance approach to furnish new understandings of sustainable development initiatives in English NPs. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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[22]
Eagles P F J, McCool S F. 2002. Tourism in national parks and protected areas: Planning and management[M]. Wallingford: CABI Publishing.

[23]
Ernst K M, van Riemsdijk M.2013. Climate change scenario planning in Alaska's national parks: Stakeholder involvement in the decision-making process[J]. Applied Geography, 45: 22-28.This article studies the participation of stakeholders in climate change decision-making in Alaska's National Parks. We place stakeholder participation within literatures on environmental and climate change decision-making. We conducted participant observation and interviews in two planning workshops to investigate the decision-making process, and our findings are three-fold. First, the inclusion of diverse stakeholders expanded climate change decision-making beyond National Park Service (NPS) institutional constraints. Second, workshops of the Climate Change Scenario Planning Project (CCSPP) enhanced institutional understandings of participants' attitudes towards climate change and climate change decision-making. Third, the geographical context of climate change influences the decision-making process. As the first regional approach to climate change decision-making within the NPS, the CCSPP serves as a model for future climate change planning in public land agencies. This study shows how the participation of stakeholders can contribute to robust decisions, may move climate change decision-making beyond institutional barriers, and can provide information about attitudes towards climate change decision-making. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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[24]
Fancy S G, Gross J E, Carter S L.2009. Monitoring the condition of natural resources in US national parks[J]. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 151(1-4): 161-174.<a name="Abs1"></a>The National Park Service has developed a long-term ecological monitoring program for 32 ecoregional networks containing more than 270 parks with significant natural resources. The monitoring program assists park managers in developing a broad-based understanding of the status and trends of park resources as a basis for making decisions and working with other agencies and the public for the long-term protection of park ecosystems. We found that the basic steps involved in planning and designing a long-term ecological monitoring program were the same for a range of ecological systems including coral reefs, deserts, arctic tundra, prairie grasslands, caves, and tropical rainforests. These steps involve (1) clearly defining goals and objectives, (2) compiling and summarizing existing information, (3) developing conceptual models, (4) prioritizing and selecting indicators, (5) developing an overall sampling design, (6) developing monitoring protocols, and (7) establishing data management, analysis, and reporting procedures. The broad-based, scientifically sound information obtained through this systems-based monitoring program will have multiple applications for management decision-making, research, education, and promoting public understanding of park resources. When combined with an effective education program, monitoring results can contribute not only to park issues, but also to larger quality-of-life issues that affect surrounding communities and can contribute significantly to the environmental health of the nation.

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[25]
Farrelly T A.2011. Indigenous and democratic decision-making: Issues from community-based ecotourism in the Boumā National Heritage Park, Fiji[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(7): 817-835.Participatory development literature involving community-based ecotourism management (CBEM) has only recently addressed issues pertaining to indigenous governance and decision-making systems. This paper contributes to sustainable tourism by presenting local decision-making practices and issues arising from the perspective of the members of one village in the Bouma National Heritage Park, Fiji. It shows that introduced democratic decision-making systems may not contribute to political empowerment in CBEM and can cause difficult situations. It is argued that greater attention to local systems of governance is required if tourism practitioners are to fully understand decision-making and participation in CBEM. The paper also offers a culturally appropriate methodology that may produce more meaningful outcomes for sustainable tourism research in indigenous Fijian contexts, and in other contexts worldwide. It argues that levels of empowerment should not just be treated as the outcome but as a part of the process of tourism development. It explores the core Fijian cultural concept of vanua as a way of life, involving interrelated social, ecological and spiritual elements. An emic perspective utilising informal talanoa (discussions) is used and examined, along with the roles of kin groups, village spokesmen and clan systems, and their relationship with western business decision-making practices.

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[26]
Garavaglia V, Diolaiuti G, Smiraglia C, et al.2012. Evaluating tourist perception of environmental changes as a contribution to managing natural resources in glacierized areas: A case study of the Forni Glacier (Stelvio National Park, Italian Alps)[J]. Environmental Management, 50(6): 1125-1138.Climate change effects are noticeably evident above the timberline where glacier and permafrost processes and mass movements drive the surface evolution. In particular, the cryosphere shrinkage is deeply changing the features and characteristics of several glacierized mountain areas of the world, and these modifications can also affect the landscape perception of tourists and mountaineers. On the one hand glacier retreat is increasing the interest of tourists and visitors in areas witnessing clear climate change impacts; on the other hand cryosphere shrinkage can impact the touristic appeal of mountain territories which, diminishing their ice and snow coverage, are also losing part of their aesthetic value. Then, to promote glacierized areas in a changing climate and to prepare exhaustive and actual proposals for sustainable tourism, it is important to deepen our knowledge about landscape perception of tourists and mountaineers and their awareness of the ongoing environmental modifications. Here we present the results from a pilot study we performed in summer 2009 on a representative glacierized area of the Alps, the Forni Valley (Stelvio National Park, Lombardy, Italy), a valley shaped by Forni, the largest Italian valley glacier. During the 2009 summer season we asked tourists visiting the Forni Valley to complete a questionnaire. This study was aimed at both describing the features and characteristics of tourists and mountaineers visiting this Alpine zone in summer and evaluating their landscape perception and their ability to recognize climate change impacts and evidence. Our results suggest that the dissemination strategies in a natural protected area have to take into account not only the main landscape features but also the sites where the information will be given. In particular considering the peculiarities of the huts located in the area, such as their different accessibility and the fact that they are included or not in a mountaineering network like that of the Italian Alpine Club. Both these factors can influence the kind of visitors to the area, thus requiring different dissemination strategies. Moreover, differences in the viewpoints from where visitors could watch and understand landscape also have to be considered. Next, in a protected area where climate change effects are evident, the dissemination strategies should be developed in close cooperation with scientists who are analyzing the area and with the support of periodic interviews which could be very useful to evaluate the effectiveness of the applied dissemination methods. Last but not least, the questionnaire should be standardized and distributed in several protected areas, thus permitting useful comparisons and the identification of common solutions for sharing in a friendly way scientific knowledge about climate change and its effects on the environment and the landscape.

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[27]
Getzner M, Švajda J.2015. Preferences of tourists with regard to changes of the landscape of the Tatra National Park in Slovakia[J]. Land Use Policy, 48: 107-119.ABSTRACT The alpine landscape of the Tatra National Park has changed significantly over the past few decades, especially as a result of the development of tourism (i.e. hotels, ski slopes) which are likely to impede the effective management of nature conservation. This study presents the results of a survey to ascertain the preferences and the perception of visitors to the Tatra National Park and its landscape. Scenarios of tourism development and landscape changes were presented to respondents verbally and by means of manipulated photos in order to visualize potential threats to the current appearance of the landscape. The data that this survey revealed and the statements made by the respondents with regard to the frequency of their trips to the National Park were combined to assess the effects of landscape changes on the recreation benefits of visitors. Furthermore, the willingness-to-pay, in terms of a hypothetical admission fee to prevent a further degradation of the ecological quality, was also ascertained. The results show that the frequency of trips is significantly reduced if one of the scenarios were to become a fact. Annual recreation benefits (measured by the consumer surplus) currently amount to approximately EUR 1,040 per person, while the loss of recreation benefits, as a consequence of further changes to the landscape considered to be unfavourable by the respondents, would amount to EUR 329 to 475 per person. In addition, visitors stated an annual willingness to pay from EUR 23 to EUR 26 to prevent further negative developments. The conclusions that were drawn refer especially to the effectiveness of management in the Tatra National Park, to the combination of revealed and stated behaviour data, and the willingness-to-pay of the visitors.

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[28]
Gimmi U, Schmidt S L, Hawbaker T J, et al.2011. Increasing development in the surroundings of U.S. National Park Service holdings jeopardizes park effectiveness[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(1): 229-239.Protected areas are cornerstones of biodiversity conservation, but they are in danger of becoming islands in a sea of human dominated landscapes. Our question was if protected areas may even foster development in their surroundings because they provide amenities that attract development, thus causing the isolation of the ecosystems they were designed to protect. Our study analyzed historic aerial photographs and topographical maps to reconstruct road development and building growth within and around Indiana Dunes and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshores in the U.S. Great Lakes region from 1938 to 2005, and to estimate the effects of park creation in 1966 on changes in landscape patterns. Historic U.S. census housing density data were used as a baseline to compare observed changes to. Our results showed that park establishment was effective in reducing and stopping the fragmenting impact of development within park boundaries. However, increased amenity levels following park establishment led to enhanced development in the surroundings of both parks. In the extreme case of Indiana Dunes, building density outside the park increased from 45 to 200buildings/km(2) and road density almost doubled from 3.6 to 6.6km/km(2) from 1938 to 2005. Development rates of change were much higher than in the broader landscape, particularly after park establishment. The potential amenity effect was up to 9500 new buildings in the 3.2-km zone around Indiana Dunes between 1966 and 2005. For Pictured Rocks the absolute effect was smaller but up to 70% of the observed building growth was potentially due to amenity effects. Our findings highlight the need for conservation planning at broader scales, incorporating areas beyond the boundaries of protected areas.

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[29]
Glick P, Stein B A.2011. Scanning the conservation horizon: A guide to climate change vulnerability assessment[M]. Washington DC: National Wildlife Federation.

[30]
Gülez S.1992. A method for evaluating areas for national park status[J]. Environmental Management, 16(6): 811-818.A procedure for evaluating different areas as national parks based on a scoring system is proposed. A National Park Evaluation Form (NPEF) evaluating natural, cultural, and recreational resources in accordance with international criteria for national parks is presented. The evaluation points given to an area indicate the possibility of the area becoming a national park. In this method, subjectivity and bias have been minimized by a special application of the Delphi technique. The method outlined here could help in the efforts of selecting and establishing national parks in many countries.

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[31]
Hall C M, Frost W.2009. Introduction: The making of the national park concept[M]//Frost W, Hall C M. Tourism and national parks: International perspectives on development, histories and change. New York: Routledge: 2-16.

[32]
Hansen A J, Piekielek N, Davis C, et al.2014. Exposure of U.S. national parks to land use and climate change 1900-2100[J]. Ecological Applications, 24(3): 484-502.Many protected areas may not be adequately safeguarding biodiversity from human activities on surrounding lands and global change. The magnitude of such change agents and the sensitivity of ecosystems to these agents vary among protected areas. Thus, there is a need to assess vulnerability across networks of protected areas to determine those most at risk and to lay the basis for developing effective adaptation strategies. We conducted an assessment of exposure of U.S. National Parks to climate and land use change and consequences for vegetation communities. We first defined park protected-area centered ecosystems (PACEs) based on ecological principles. We then drew on existing land use, invasive species, climate, and biome data sets and models to quantify exposure of PACEs from 1900 through 2100. Most PACEs experienced substantial change over the 20th century (>740% average increase in housing density since 1940, 13% of vascular plants are presently nonnative, temperature increase of 1 degrees C/100 yr since 1895 in 80% of PACEs), and projections suggest that many of these trends will continue at similar or increasingly greater rates (255% increase in housing density by 2100, temperature increase of 2.5 degrees-4.5 degrees C/100 yr, 30% of PACE areas may lose their current biomes by 2030). In the coming century, housing densities are projected to increase in PACEs at about 82% of the rate of since 1940. The rate of climate warming in the coming century is projected to be 2.5-5.8 times higher than that measured in the past century. Underlying these averages, exposure of individual park PACEs to change agents differ in important ways. For example, parks such as Great Smoky Mountains exhibit high land use and low climate exposure, others such as Great Sand Dunes exhibit low land use and high climate exposure, and a few such as Point Reyes exhibit high exposure on both axes. The cumulative and synergistic effects of such changes in land use, invasives, and climate are expected to dramatically impact ecosystem function and biodiversity in national parks. These results are foundational to developing effective adaptation strategies and suggest policies to better safeguard parks under broad-scale environmental change.

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[33]
Heberling M T, Templeton J J.Estimating the economic value of national parks with count data models using on-site, secondary data: The case of the Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve[J]. Environmental Management, 2009, 43(4): 619-627.<a name="Abs1"></a>We estimate an individual travel cost model for Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve (GSD) in Colorado using on-site, secondary data. The purpose of the on-site survey was to help the National Park Service better understand the visitors of GSD; it was not intended for a travel cost model. Variables such as travel cost and income were estimated based on respondents&#8217; Zip Codes. Following approaches found in the literature, a negative binomial model corrected for truncation and endogenous stratification fit the data the best. We estimate a recreational benefit of U.S. <span class="latex"><span class="ss">89/<i>visitor</i>/<i>year</i> <i>or</i> <i>U</i>.<i>S</i>.</span><span class="cs"><span class="math">89/visitor/year or U.S. </span></span></span>54/visitor/24-h recreational day (in 2002 U.S. $). Based on the approach presented here, there are other data sets for national parks, preserves, and battlefields where travel cost models could be estimated and used to support National Park Service management decisions.

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[34]
Hiwasaki L.2005. Toward sustainable management of national parks in Japan: Securing local community and stakeholder participation[J]. Environmental Management, 35(6): 753-764.<a name="Abs1"></a>Japan’s national park system constitutes a potentially viable mechanism for securing local community participation and building stakeholder consensus for sustainable park management, although the potential of this system is yet to be fully maximized. This article gives an overview of the system of protecting natural resources in Japan, focusing on the national park system. Parks are managed by zoning and regulation, which is unique in that land is not “set aside” for nature conservation, but designated as national park wherever the need to preserve “scenic beauty” has been recognized, regardless of land ownership or land use. Although resource conservation under this system has been problematic, it has advantages, especially in terms of community participation. This article demonstrates that in order to reach the system’s potential, the park authority must act as coordinator of stakeholders and facilitator of bottom-up approaches to decision-making. In order to do this, steps that must be taken include the following: identifying the various stakeholders in park management and defining the “local community”; clarifying the roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder; and supporting consensus-building among stakeholders regarding the objectives and long-term vision of each park. By taking these steps, it would be possible to build a park management system that overrides government boundaries and involves local communities. This will enable the park authority to address the challenges facing Japan’s complex system of conserving natural resources, and move towards sustainable management of natural resources in Japan.

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[35]
Kaltenborn B P, Nyahongo J W, Kidegesho J R, et al.2008. Serengeti National Park and its neighbours: Do they interact[J]. Journal for Nature Conservation, 16(2): 96-108.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Summary</h2><p id="">Community-based management of protected areas has become a strong political objective worldwide. Many African countries have responded to this challenge, albeit with mixed results. Tanzania which is known for its abundant populations of wildlife in national parks has also developed several projects and institutions to improve people&ndash;park relationships. So far however, there is little evidence that community-based programmes have had any significant effect on management strategies, benefit distribution, or alleviating poverty. In this paper, we examine a part of this complex in the Western Corridor of Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. We address the basic questions of what is the extent of contact between park staff and the communities, what benefits are provided, and what needs do the communities see? There is little interaction between the park and adjacent communities, and while support is given to community projects, minimal benefits are distributed to the household or individual level. The current situation seems incapable of facilitating improved people&ndash;park relationships.</p>

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[36]
Kang M, Gretzel U.2012. Effects of podcast tours on tourist experiences in a national park[J]. Tourism Management, 33(2): 440-455.This study examines the influence of podcast tours on tourist experiences. Based on theoretical accounts that human voices convey rich social information, this study proposes that podcast tours increase perceived social presence and mindfulness that lead to enhanced tourist experiences and environmental stewardship. A field experiment was conducted at a national park using MP3 players containing podcast tours based on four experimental conditions: 2 information source compositions (single vs. multiple narrator voices) x 2 narrating styles (formal vs. conversational). The results support that even if communicated through audio-only media, the human voice creates a positive social context for meaningful interaction which influences tourist experiences and stewardship. Mindfulness was also found to be an important construct affecting the quality of experiences. The findings support the usefulness of podcast tours as interpretative media. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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[37]
Karki S T.2013. Do protected areas and conservation incentives contribute to sustainable livelihoods? A case study of Bardia National Park, Nepal[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 128: 988-999.Effective biodiversity protection and improved human welfare as 'win-win' situations have been the foundation for protected areas and conservation incentives. However, conserving land in this way can become a development issue that restricts agricultural expansion and resource exploitation, with potentially substantial costs to people living in conditions of high social impoverishment and high critical natural capital. This paper investigates whether Nepal's Bardia National Park and conservation incentives have contributed to the sustainable livelihoods of households. Data on household livelihoods and conservation benefits were collected through a questionnaire survey of 358 households and community workshops in three villages. Different impacts on household livelihoods were observed between the villages. It was found that these impacts were dependent on household characteristics, access to prior capital, and the social position of the household within society. Households lacking resources, being poor and belonging to lower castes were least included and also benefited less from development projects. As finance in the form of development projects from organisations continues to flow to the communities, it is important that detailed livelihood planning focussing on alternative regenerative livelihoods and micro-enterprises in the informal sector is included to target those households that are highly dependent on park resources. Livelihood planning must also include a clear linkage between livelihood enhancing activities and the conservation programme so that communities are aware that the benefits they receive are due to the protected area. Appreciation of benefits and their positive impact on livelihoods is important for the sustainability of incentive-based programmes. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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[38]
Kati V, Dimopoulos P, Papaioannou H, et al.2009. Ecological management of a Mediterranean Mountainous Reserve (Pindos National Park, Greece) using the bird community as an indicator[J]. Journal for Nature Conservation, 17(1): 47-59.We used the community of passerines and woodpeckers as a target group for the conservation management of Pindos National Park (NW Greece). We conducted bird point counts twice during springtime in 72 plots that represented the main vegetation types (16 sites). We recorded 56 species (14 of conservation concern-SPEC). The montane grasslands were the most important habitats in terms of species of conservation concern, whereas the agricultural mosaics were the most species-rich habitats. The mixed pine-beech woods were significantly richer than the pinewoods, whereas pinewoods and broad-leaved woods did not differ significantly between them. The bird diversity was significantly correlated with the number of tree layers, the vertical structural complexity and the maximum height of trees. The presence of grassland, forest and agricultural habitat type, as well as the altitude and the vegetation structural complexity were the main environmental parameters determining species composition (Canonical Correspondence Analysis). We identified a set of 17 typical species (IndVal analysis) to be used in the monitoring scheme of the Park, which were characteristic of the main bird habitat types distinguished by Ward's hierarchical clustering. Conservation measures should involve maintenance of the traditional agricultural practices, montane grasslands, old growth woods, as well as the vertical vegetation complexity and high trees in forest stands.

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[39]
Kelkit A, Celik S, Eşbah H.2010. Ecotourism potential of Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park[J]. Journal of Coastal Research, 26(3): 562-568.

[40]
Kolahi M, Sakai T, Moriya K, et al.2013. Assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas management in Iran: Case study in Khojir National Park[J]. Environmental Management, 52(2): 514-530.The requirement to assess the management effectiveness (ME) in protected areas (PAs) is increasing around the world to help improve management and accountability. An evaluation of ME for Khojir National Park (KNP), one of the Iran's oldest PAs, was conducted using a multi-method approach that consisted of structured interviews, open interviews, and site visits. This was the first ME evaluation in Iran. The structured interview was based on the management effectiveness tracking tool methodology. KNP received an average score of 43 %, which is lower than the global average, illustrating that its general management was in the low-intermediate level. The indices of legal status, resource inventory, planning for land and water use, regulations, and objectives received the highest average scores, whereas education and awareness, community co-management, regular work plan, boundary demarcation, visitor facilities, budget sources, staff training, protection systems, and management plan received the lowest ones. The management system of KNP was generally established, but many problems of the management still need to be resolved. To improve ME, some countermeasures should be taken, such as increasing funding, strengthening capacity building, planning, and adaptive management, and implementing community participation.

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[41]
Lai P H, Hsu Y C, Nepal S K.2013. Representing the landscape of Yushan National Park[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 43: 37-57.Our study examined the representations of Yushan National Park from the perspectives of two tourism stakeholders, including an indigenous local community and the national park service. Social representations theory was applied to explore competing claims for a legitimate version of the park by each group. Additionally, the concept of territoriality was adopted to examine territorial expressions associated with the park and places therein. Sixteen community and twelve park service informants were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling. Both groups were found to converge in certain representations they ascribed to Yushan. More frequently, they were discordant in what consisted of its ideal image. Territorial strategies were employed by some informants to defend their ideal representation. Implications for collaborative partnerships are discussed.

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[42]
Lawson S R, Manning R E, Valliere W A, et al.2003. Proactive monitoring and adaptive management of social carrying capacity in Arches National Park: An application of computer simulation modeling[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 68(3): 305-313.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Public visits to parks and protected areas continue to increase and may threaten the integrity of natural and cultural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. Scientists and managers have adopted the concept of carrying capacity to address the impacts of visitor use. In the context of outdoor recreation, the social component of carrying capacity refers to the level of visitor use that can be accommodated in parks and protected areas without diminishing the quality of the visitor experience to an unacceptable degree. This study expands and illustrates the use of computer simulation modeling as a tool for proactive monitoring and adaptive management of social carrying capacity at Arches National Park. A travel simulation model of daily visitor use throughout the Park's road and trail network and at selected attraction sites was developed, and simulations were conducted to estimate a daily social carrying capacity for Delicate Arch, an attraction site in Arches National Park, and for the Park as a whole. Further, a series of simulations were conducted to estimate the effect of a mandatory shuttle bus system on daily social carrying capacity of Delicate Arch to illustrate how computer simulation modeling can be used as a tool to facilitate adaptive management of social carrying capacity.</p>

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[43]
Leung Y F, Marion J L.1999. Characterizing backcountry camping impacts in Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USA[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 57(3): 93-203.The impacts on natural resources of backcountry camp sites (308 designated sites and 69 unofficial sites) were assessed in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park on the borders of Tennessee and North Carolina in 1993. Camp sites were rated on a 5-point condition class scale in which class 1 sites were barely affected and class 5 sites had lost most of their vegetation and litter cover and eros...

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[44]
Leung Y F, Newburger T, Jones M, et al.2011. Developing a monitoring protocol for visitor-created informal trails in Yosemite National Park, USA[J]. Environmental Management, 47(1): 93-106.Informal trails created or perpetuated by visitors is a management challenge in many protected natural areas such as Yosemite National Park. This is a significant issue as informal trail networks penetrate and proliferate into protected landscapes and habitats, threatening ecological integrity, aesthetics, and visitor experiences. In order to develop effective strategies for addressing this problem under an adaptive management framework, indicators must be developed and monitoring protocol must be established to gather timely and relevant data about the condition, extent, and distribution of these undesired trail segments. This article illustrates a process of developing and evaluating informal trail indicators for meadows in Yosemite Valley. Indicator measures developed in past research were reviewed to identify their appropriateness for the current application. Information gaps in existing indicator measures were addressed by creating two new indices to quantify the degree of informal trailing based on its land fragmentation effects. The selected indicator measures were applied to monitoring data collected between 2006 and 2008. The selected measures and indices were evaluated for their ability to characterize informal trail impacts at site and landscape scales. Results demonstrate the utility of indicator measures in capturing different characteristics of the informal trail problem, though several metrics are strongly related to each other. The two fragmentation indices were able to depict fragmentation without being too sensitive to changes in one constituent parameter. This study points to the need for a multiparameter approach to informal trail monitoring and integration with other monitoring data. Implications for monitoring programs and research are discussed.

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[45]
Locke H, Dearden P.2005. Rethinking protected area categories and the new paradigm[J]. Environmental Conservation, 32(1): 1-10.ABSTRACT The World Conservation Union (IUCN) plays a global leadership role in defining different types of protected areas, and influencing how protected area systems develop and are managed. Following the 1992 World Parks Congress, a new system of categorizing protected areas was developed. New categories were introduced, including categories that allowed resource extraction. Since that time there has been rapid growth in the global numbers and size of protected areas, with most growth being shown in the new categories. Further-more, the IUCN has heralded a ‘new paradigm’ of protected areas, which became the main focus of the 2003 World Parks Congress. The paradigm focuses on benefits to local people to alleviate poverty, re-engineering protected areas professionals, and an emphasis on the interaction between humans and nature through a focus on the new IUCN protected area categories.The purpose of this paper is to examine critically the implications of the new categories and paradigm shift in light of the main purpose of protected areas, to protect wild biodiversity. Wild biodiversity will not be well served by adoption of this new paradigm, which will devalue conservation biology, undermine the creation of more strictly protected reserves, inflate the amount of area in reserves and place people at the centre of the protected area agenda at the expense of wild biodiversity. Only IUCN categories I–IV should be recognized as protected areas. The new categories, namely culturally modified landscapes (V) and managed resource areas (VI), should be reclassified as sustainable development areas. To do so would better serve both the protection of wild biodiversity and those seeking to meet human needs on humanized landscapes where sustainable development is practised.

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[46]
Lund D H, Boon T E, Nathan I.2009. Accountability of experts in the Danish National Park process[J]. Forest Policy and Economics, 11(5-6): 437-445.In 2002 the Danish Minister of Environment initiated a process to investigate the possibilities of establishing national parks in Denmark. For this purpose experts were mobilised to investigate the status and potentials of the areas in question. The national park process was extensive in scope and complex, and in theory such complexity is assumed to make it difficult for non-experts to understa...

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[47]
Ly T P, Xiao H G.2016. The choice of a park management model: A case study of Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park in Vietnam[J]. Tourism Management Perspectives, 17: 1-15.Establishing balance among the mandates for recreation, conservation and economy makes sustainable tourism management of parks and protected areas a challenge. The Vietnamese park system continues to transform into different management models. In 2006, the Special-Use Forests Policy introduced the co-existing management model, under which power is distributed between the public and private sect...

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[48]
Ma X L, Ryan C, Bao J G.2009. Chinese national parks: Differences, resource use and tourism product portfolios[J]. Tourism Management, 30(1): 21-30.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">This paper has three purposes. First, it briefly describes some of the economic and cultural features of Chinese national parks that distinguish them from their counterparts in locations such as Europe, even while underlying similarities exist. Second, drawing on these differences it reports research into the efficiency of use of their resources by applying the technique, data envelopment analysis, to data made available for 136 national parks. Third, building on the results it identifies the role of external economies of scale in affecting resource usage and argues that being part of a portfolio of wider tourism locations is a means of improving resource usage. Such conclusions reinforce the role of Chinese national parks in rural economic regeneration through tourism, which arguably has as much importance in Chinese thinking as do issues of environmental protection. Thus tensions exist as to the role of national parks in China, and in their subsequent management.</p>

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[49]
Mahan C G, Vanderhorst J P, Young J A.2009. Natural resource assessment: An approach to science based planning in national parks[J]. Environmental Management, 43(6): 1301-1312.<a name="Abs1"></a>We conducted a natural resource assessment at two national parks, New River Gorge National River and Shenandoah National Park, to help meet the goals of the Natural Resource Challenge&#8212;a program to help strengthen natural resource management at national parks. We met this challenge by synthesizing and interpreting natural resource information for planning purposes and we identified information gaps and natural significance of resources. We identified a variety of natural resources at both parks as being globally and/or nationally significant, including large expanses of unfragmented, mixed-mesophytic forests that qualify for wilderness protection, rare plant communities, diverse assemblages of neotropical migratory birds and salamanders, and outstanding aquatic recreational resources. In addition, these parks function, in part, as ecological reserves for plants in and wildlife. With these significant natural resources in mind, we also developed a suite of natural resource management recommendations in light of increasing threats from within and outside park boundaries. We hope that our approach can provide a blueprint for natural resource conservation at publically owned lands.

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[50]
Mayer M.2014. Can nature-based tourism benefits compensate for the costs of national parks? A study of the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4): 561-583.German national parks are increasingly under pressure from land use change and need objective information on economic values associated with different forms of use to help policy-makers resolve conflicting policy goals. To date, a complete cost-benefit analysis of a German national park has not been undertaken. This paper addresses this gap through a study from the Bavarian Forest National Park (BFNP), the oldest and best known park in Germany. The research questions are: (1) Is the designation of the national park economically justified? and (2) Can revenue from park tourism compensate for its costs? Databases used include a visitor and enterprise survey, qualitative interviews and secondary sources; analyses involved several interrelated environmental valuation methods. Results suggest that the BFNP is an economically favourable land use option under most scenarios. At national level, half of the scenarios show a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) greater than 1. At regional level the park acts as a tool for economic development, generating net monetary gains for surrounding counties, with BCRs of over 1 throughout. Tourism contributes to over 60% of the benefits and compensates for more than two-thirds of the costs in half of the scenarios discussed. Key policy implications are listed.

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[51]
Mitchell R, Wooliscroft B, Higham J E S.2013. Applying sustainability in national park management: Balancing public and private interests using a sustainable market orientation model[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(5): 695-715.The application of sustainable development (SD) in organisational strategy has been debated for over 20 years. There is much social and political support for sustainability, but very little empirical research into its value, particularly to public sector organisations. This paper reports on the first empirical research into the application of Sustainable Market Orientation (SMO), a conceptual m...

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[52]
Monz C, D'Antonio A, Lawson S, et al.2016. The ecological implications of visitor transportation in parks and protected areas: Examples from research in US national parks[J]. Journal of Transport Geography, 51: 27-35.Abstract The demand for recreation and nature-based tourism experiences in parks and protected areas continues to grow in many locations worldwide and in response, many parks are employing transit services designed to improve visitor access. Transit services (e.g., public bus service) are a component of the overall park transportation system and are very desirable in park settings as they yield many advantages over personal auto access including reduced congestion in parking areas, a reduced carbon footprint, and an enhanced visitor experience. However, a growing body of research also suggests that the delivery of visitors via transit to destinations within a park or protected area may have unique ecological disturbance implications resulting from increased visitor use, density, and altered spatial and temporal use patterns. In this paper, we examine the relevant literature and present examples from recent research that illustrates the potential range of ecologic impacts from visitor deliveries via park transportation systems. We conclude while transit systems remain very desirable in park settings, depending on a range of situational factors, conventional, demand-driven planning and management approaches may result in unintended impacts to ecological conditions. Overall, this discussion provides a framework for improved management of the potential ecological impacts of protected area transportation systems.

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[53]
Munroe D K, Nagendra H, Southworth J.2007. Monitoring landscape fragmentation in an inaccessible mountain area: Celaque National Park, western Honduras[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 83(2): 154-167.Many protected areas across the world are in locations marginal for human uses. Debate remains about the impact of these parks on land-cover change, which may be confounded by the role played by the biophysical landscape. To test whether parks limit landscape fragmentation due to their designated protection or biophysical location, one must control for features that render the park inaccessible. We examine the effect of Celaque National Park, Honduras, on landscape fragmentation from 1987 to 2000 using remote sensing, GIS and landscape pattern analysis. Multivariate analyses of variance and covariance were conducted to examine differences in landscape fragmentation within the park and the surrounding landscape adjusting for differences in accessibility. Indicators of patch fragmentation were significantly correlated with slope, elevation and distance to roads. Different management categories within the park were found to have significant differences in land-cover change and landscape fragmentation, and the impact of management category was even more significant after accounting for the differences in accessibility that exist across these zones. Thus, the park boundaries have been important in mediating land-cover change pressures, even after accounting for the substantial differences in the accessibility of forestland for conversion to agricultural land use.

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[54]
Mylonopoulos D, Moira P, Parthenis S.2011. The legislative framework of the management of the protected areas in Greece. The case of the national marine park of Zakynthos[J]. Journal of Coastal Research, 173-182: doi: 10.2112/SI61-001.12.

[55]
Neher C, Duffield J, Patterson D.2013. Valuation of National Park System visitation: The efficient use of count data models, meta-analysis, and secondary visitor survey data[J]. Environmental Management, 52(3): 683-698.The National Park Service (NPS) currently manages a large and diverse system of park units nationwide which received an estimated 279 million recreational visits in 2011. This article uses park visitor data collected by the NPS Visitor Services Project to estimate a consistent set of count data travel cost models of park visitor willingness to pay (WTP). Models were estimated using 58 different park unit survey datasets. WTP estimates for these 58 park surveys were used within a meta-regression analysis model to predict average and total WTP for NPS recreational visitation system-wide. Estimated WTP per NPS visit in 2011 averaged $102 system-wide, and ranged across park units from $67 to $288. Total 2011 visitor WTP for the NPS system is estimated at $28.5 billion with a 95% confidence interval of $19.7-$43.1 billion. The estimation of a meta-regression model using consistently collected data and identical specification of visitor WTP models greatly reduces problems common to meta-regression models, including sample selection bias, primary data heterogeneity, and heteroskedasticity, as well as some aspects of panel effects. The article provides the first estimate of total annual NPS visitor WTP within the literature directly based on NPS visitor survey data.

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[56]
Nepal S K, Weber K W.1995. Managing resources and resolving conflicts: National parks and local people[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 2(1): 11-25.ABSTRACT One of the major management problems in protected areas of developing nations is the ever more intensifying land use disputes with local, often native, people. The customary rights of local people over natural resources, if curtailed by the establishment of national parks, and their disregard by decision-makers, have given rise to open conflicts, thus jeopardizing conservation goals. These conflicts have tremendous impact on the management of natural resources, not only within the park ecosystem but also in its surroundings. To attain the interdependent goals of conservation and sustainable development, such disputes must be promptly and consensually settled. This paper briefly discusses the paradigm of national park establishment and its impact on local livelihood. It then highlights major sources of conflict which have occurred in national parks in developing countries. Some theoretical approaches to conflict resolution as relevant to national parks are summarized, and several strategies, as employed in particular situations, are discussed. It is concluded that an in-depth understanding of human ecology beyond the boundaries of parks and the conceptualization of strategies to resolve the innate problems are imperative. The integration of several strategies is deemed essential in order to address issues comprehensively and on a larger scale.

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[57]
Obua J.1997. The potential, development and ecological impact of ecotourism in Kibale National Park, Uganda[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 50(1): 27-38.Recreation and ecotourism are often introduced into protected areas without sufficient evaluation. The study observes that development of campsites in the Kibale National Park of Uganda that involve much vegetation removal accounts for loss of woody species and reduces species composition in protected areas. Some recommendations are made: (i) early evaluation of the potential of natural areas s...

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[58]
Padoa-Schioppa E, Baietto M.2008. Effects of tourism pressure on herd composition in the Sherpa villages of Sagarmatha National Park (Everest, Nepal)[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 15(5): 412-418.ABSTRACT Tourism represents an increasingly important resource for many countries. We estimated the impact of tourism on local herd composition in Sagarmatha National Park (Nepal). We collected field data (interviews in villages) and searched bibliographic and historical sources. Village structure (lodge building) and animal husbandry (herd composition, male/female ratio) were also examined. We found that economic pressure (tourism income) has led to a change in village structure and livestock composition. Statistical analysis (2 and Spearman correlation coefficient) confirmed this hypothesis. We suggest that traditional settlements have a positive effect on biodiversity because they increase landscape heterogeneity, while changes in villages due to tourism pressure may exceed the natural limiting factors of the park.

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[59]
Pergams O R W, Zaradic P A.2006. Is love of nature in the US becoming love of electronic media? 16-year downtrend in national park visits explained by watching movies, playing video games, internet use, and oil prices[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 80(4): 387-393.After 50 years of steady increase, per capita visits to US national parks have declined since 1988. This decline, coincident with the rise in electronic entertainment media, may represent a shift in recreation choices with broader implications for the value placed on biodiversity conservation and environmentally responsible behavior. We compared the decline in per capita visits with a set of indicators representing alternate recreation choices and constraints. The Spearman correlation analyses found this decline in NPV to be significantly negatively correlated with several electronic entertainment indicators: hours of television, (rs=-0.743, P<0.001), video games (rs=-0.773, P<0.001), home movies (rs=-0.788, P<0.001), theatre attendance (rs=-0.587, P<0.025) and internet use (rs=-0.783, P<0.001). There were also significant negative correlations with oil prices (rs=-0.547, P<0.025), foreign travel (rs=-0.452, P<0.05), and Appalachian Trail hikers (rs=-0.785, P<0.001). Income was significantly positively correlated with foreign travel (rs=0.621, P<0.005) but negatively correlated with national park visits (rs=-0.697, P<0.005). There was no significant correlation of mean number of vacation days, indicating available vacation time is probably not a factor. Federal funding actually increased during this period, and so was rejected as a probable factor. Park capacity was rejected as limiting since both total overnight stays and visits at the seven most popular parks rose well into the mid-1990s. Aging of baby boomers was also rejected as they are only now reaching retirement age, and thus during the period of visitation decline were still of prime family vacation age. Multiple linear regression of four of the entertainment media variables as well as oil prices explains 97.5% of this recent decline (r=0.975, multiple r2=0.950, adjusted multiple r2=0.925, SE=0.015, F=37.800, P<0.0001). We may be seeing evidence of a fundamental shift away from people's appreciation of nature (biophilia, Wilson 1984) to 'videophilia,' which we here define as "the new human tendency to focus on sedentary activities involving electronic media." Such a shift would not bode well for the future of biodiversity conservation.

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[60]
Pettebone D, Meldrum B, Leslie C, et al.2013. A visitor use monitoring approach on the Half Dome cables to reduce crowding and inform park planning decisions in Yosemite National Park[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 118: 1-9.Regulating visitor access, in the form of user limits, on public lands is a contentious issue. Although visitor use limits have been instituted to manage a variety of recreation activities in national parks there is little research that has successfully demonstrated relationships between visitor use levels and evaluative conditions (e.g. visitor perceptions of crowding). The lack of empirical understanding of relationships between use levels and evaluative conditions brings into question the efficacy of use limits to achieve management objectives. This paper describes a research and monitoring program that identifies clear management objectives and definitive visitor use pattern relationships to manage visitor use on Half Dome in Yosemite National Park to inform the development of the Half Dome Trail Stewardship Plan that established a permit system to limit visitor use on and around Half Dome. Automated visitor counters were used to collect trail use level data and photographic documentation was used to collect people-at-one-time (PAOT) data on the cable route. Regression analyses yielded strong relationships between these data and show that 400 people per day significantly reduces crowded conditions and preserves unimpeded travel on the Half Dome cables. The approach and results developed in this project provide a basis for future monitoring to promote adaptive management of visitor use on Half Dome in order to ensure that management objectives related to quality visitor experiences and safety are met. Published by Elsevier B.V.

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[61]
Puhakka R, Cottrell S P, Siikamäki P.2014. Sustainability perspectives on Oulanka National Park, Finland: Mixed methods in tourism research[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(3): 480-505.This paper positions mixed methods as a complement to traditional qualitative and quantitative research. It provides an example of conducting mixed methods research by analysing the sociocultural sustainability of tourism as perceived by local stakeholders nearby Oulanka National Park in north-eastern Finland. Semi-structured interviews were linked concurrently to survey data from the same respondents. First, four discourses were identified based on 40 interviews with respondents about tourism development pertinent to the Protected Area Network (PAN) Parks international certification. Second, the differences between the representatives of the discourses were examined using non-parametric statistics. Results of the qualitative and quantitative analysis supplemented each other. The survey results supported the identification of four discourses and provided information about the representatives using the discourses. The discourse groups differed according to length of residence in the area, distance from the park, gender, employment in tourism, familiarity with PAN Parks, benefit from PAN Parks status, belief in the benefits of PAN Parks, satisfaction with tourism and park development, importance of the environmental dimension and satisfaction with various dimensions of sustainability. The study demonstrates that a better understanding of a problem may be acquired by using a mix of survey methods and interviews.

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[62]
Richardson R B, Loomis J B.2005. Climate change and recreation benefits in an Alpine National Park[J]. Journal of Leisure Research, 37(3): 307-320.Weather conditions may affect the quality of an outdoor recreation experience. Quality of the recreation may be reflected in the visitor's willingness to pay or their net economic benefits of recreation. The present study used the contingent valuation method to measure the effects of weather on net willingness to pay (WTP) for trips to Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, USA. A visitor su...

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[63]
Sanders J M.1996. A comparative study of the planning and management of Monument Valley Tribal Park and Canyon de Chelly National Monument[J]. Landscape and Urban Planning, 36(2): 171-182.Monument Valley Tribal Park and Canyon de Chelly National Monument are two world class sites that are both situated within the Navajo Reservation. The former is a Navajo Tribal Park and the latter is a unit in the United States National Park System. A review of legislative and administrative histories reveals that most Navajos did not understand the significance of land withdrawal at the time of park establishment and that after unsure beginnings each site is currently managed with greater responsiveness to local residents. In recent years there have been significant increases in visitation at each site. As a direct result of tribal planning and management policy changes, Monument Valley has substantially increased visitor services and park employment opportunities while Canyon de Chelly has been subject to federal budget cutbacks. Problems associated with oral promises to local residents are also discussed.

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[64]
Schmoldt D L, Peterson D L.2001. Strategic and tactical planning for managing national park resources[M]//Schmoldt D L, Kangas J, Mendoza G A, et al. The analytic hierarchy process in natural resource and environmental decision making. Berlin, Germany: Springer Netherlands: 67-79.

[65]
Schwartz Z, Lin L C.2006. The impact of fees on visitation of national parks[J]. Tourism Management, 27(6): 1386-1396.This study assesses the impact of the change in revenue management policy (namely the increased public land recreation fees) on the number of domestic and international travellers that visit the large, mostly well-known US National Park System sites. Baseline, multivariate demand models were developed based on secondary data from 10 years prior to the fee policy change, and were used to predict...

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[66]
Slocum S L, Curtis K R.2016. Assessing sustainable food behaviours of national park visitors: Domestic/on vocation linkages, and their implications for park policies[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(1): 153-167.This study compares the "at-home" and "while travelling" sustainable food practices of national park visitors in the US Intermountain West through an in-person survey. Results show that tourist's sustainable food practices do not carry over into their national park experience. Specifically, they shop for and consume fewer local foods and participate in fewer food-related activities when travell...

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[67]
Southworth J, Nagendra H, Carlson L A, et al.2004. Assessing the impact of Celaque National Park on forest fragmentation in western Honduras[J]. Applied Geography, 24(4): 303-322.<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">The effectiveness of parks as management regimes is much in debate. This study examines the effect of establishment of the Celaque National Park, Honduras, in 1987, on limiting deforestation through a comparison with the surrounding landscape using remote sensing, GIS and landscape pattern analysis. Pressure on the park region is found to relate spatially to the locations of towns and roads, with increasing deforestation in the landscape surrounding the park. In contrast, the park has been largely successful in maintaining forest cover. Although the extent of change within the park is not pronounced, the pattern of change is. Expansion of agriculture and coffee production have led to increasing pressure on the park boundaries, with as much as 25% of the landscape surrounding the park experiencing land cover change between 1996 and 2000. This has significant implications for the future of the park.</p>

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[68]
Stamieszkin K, Wielgus J, Gerber L R.2009. Management of a marine protected area for sustainability and conflict resolution: Lessons from Loreto Bay National Park (Baja California Sur, Mexico)[J]. Ocean & Coastal Management, 52(9): 449-458.The Loreto Bay National Park was established to protect the area's ecosystems from habitat destruction and overexploitation. However, the park has not met two of its primary goals: recovery of commercially valuable fish populations and their sustainable use by stakeholders. Based on evidence from the literature, dialogue with stakeholders, a literature review on using recreational fees for marine protected area (MPA) management, and an economic valuation survey, we provide practical guidelines for addressing factors hindering the park's success. These include: 1) the implementation of management based upon ecosystem science, and rigorous monitoring of park ecosystems, 2) increased communication among stake-holder groups, outreach and education, and 3) a re-organization of the park's administrative structure that would allow for more efficient use of funds. Our results also suggest that the park entrance fee could be raised to support these proposed improvements.

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[69]
Steuer C.2010. Climate friendly parks: Performing greenhouse gas inventories at US national parks and implications for public sector greenhouse gas protocols[J]. Applied Geography, 30(4): 475-482.Through the Climate Friendly Parks Program, the United States National Park Service, in partnership with the United States Environmental Protection Agency, has conducted greenhouse gas emission inventories for approximately 20 national parks. When organized according to scopes as recommended in the draft Public Sector Standard prepared by the World Resources Institute, the greenhouse gas emission inventory results indicate that the national park’s scope 1 and scope 2 greenhouse gas emissions are low relative to scope 3 emissions. For most parks, the majority of scope 3 emissions occur from visitor vehicle travel. A recent Executive Order issued by President Obama in October 2009 requires that agencies include specified scope 3 emission sources in their greenhouse gas inventories and set targets for reducing scope 3 emissions. As the NPS considers actions to reduce scope 3 emissions the bureau should ensure that the mitigation actions align with the NPS mission and consider the bureau’s role as it relates to broader national GHG mitigation efforts. Ultimately, the national park’s greatest ability to reduce GHG emissions may lie in demonstrating sustainable techniques and technologies that can be replicated by visitors beyond the park’s boundaries.

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[70]
Suckall N, Fraser E D G, Cooper T, et al.2009. Visitor perceptions of rural landscapes: A case study in the Peak District National Park, England[J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(2): 1195-1203.Maintaining national parks is an integral policy tool to conserve rare habitats. However, because national parks are funded by taxpayers, they must also serve the needs of the general public. Increasingly, and thanks to today's diverse society, there is evidence that this creates challenges for park managers who are pulled in two opposing directions: to conserve nature on the one hand and to meet different visitor expectations on the other. This tension was explored in the Peak District National Park, a rural landscape dominated by heather moorland and sheep farming in Northern England where research was conducted to determine how social class and ethnicity shaped perceptions of the park. Results uncovered that social class played a very strong role in shaping perceptions of this region with 'middle class' respondents reacting far more favourably to the park than people from more working class backgrounds. We observed ethnicity playing a similar role, though our results are less significantly different.

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[71]
Suffling R, Scott D.2002. Assessment of climate change effects on Canada's national park system[J]. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 74(2): 117-139.

[72]
Swain D.2001. Joint protected area management: A proposal for the management of sanctuaries and national parks in India[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 8(3): 257-265.ABSTRACT With the aim of evaluating the biotic pressure on a protected area, Kuldiha Sanctuary in Orissa, India was taken as a case study. In the 19 villages lying within a 1 km radius of the Sanctuary, there are 9814 people with 19% literacy. Tribals constitute 73.3% of the population. Some 7507 head loaders collect firewood from the Sanctuary every day. In addition, 37 297 cattle enter the forest for grazing. Consequently alienating the people depending on the Sanctuary in the management and conservation of wild flora and fauna is not only futile but also detrimental to the socio-cultural-economic fabric of the ecosystem of the people. In this study, involvement of the local community in the protection and management of the Sanctuary and National Park is proposed and methods of implementation, funding and a legal framework are discussed.

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[73]
Thede A K, Haider W, Rutherford M B.2014. Zoning in national parks: Are Canadian zoning practices outdated[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4): 626-645.Zoning is a common tool in protected areas, especially for visitor management purposes. Parks Canada has a long-established national zoning framework for all national parks. At the operational level, planners use this framework to spatially delineate each park into areas with varying levels of ecological integrity and human activity. After Parks Canada's recent major restructuring, and a new streamlined management planning process embedded in ecosystem management, it is important to examine if, or to what extent, zoning is effective in advancing the agency's goals. We interviewed Parks Canada employees about their perspectives on zoning. In their perception, the rigid definition of zones, fundamental differences between southern and northern parks, and the coexistence of the historical zoning framework with modern management policies constituted major challenges at the national or constitutive level. At the operational level, they were concerned about a status quo bias in zoning, purposeful delays in implementing zoning, and the absence of explicit evaluation of park zoning processes and outcomes. Zoning remains a necessary, albeit not central, component of the management planning process, but provides only crude spatial direction for core management activities. The relevance of zoning for other parks, and for sustainable tourism strategies is discussed.

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[74]
Tomczyk A M.2011. A GIS assessment and modelling of environmental sensitivity of recreational trails: The case of Gorce National Park, Poland[J]. Applied Geography, 31(1): 339-351.Although 50% of the area of the Gorce National Park has potentially medium or low environmental sensitivity to trail impact, over 36% of its recreational trails and forest roads are constructed in sensitive areas. These roads are highly susceptible to gully erosion. One result of the model used in this study is the qualitative assessment of environmental sensitivity. Although it does not provide quantitative results (e.g. a maximum allowed number of tourists per day), it allows to study the spatial distribution of environmental vulnerability and to compare selected areas. For example, results provided by the proposed methodology can be used to determine which areas are resilient and therefore are predisposed to recreational use, and which are vulnerable and should be protected from severe human impact.

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[75]
van Wilgen B W, Forsyth G G, Prins P.2012. The management of fire-adapted ecosystems in an urban setting: The case of Table Mountain National Park, South Africa[J]. Ecology and Society, 17(1): 8.Abstract The Table Mountain National Park is a 265-km虏 conservation area embedded within a city of 3.5 million people. The highly diverse and unique vegetation of the park is both fire prone and fire adapted, and the use of fire forms an integral part of the ecological management of the park. Because fires are both necessary and dangerous, fire management is characterized by uncertainty and conflict. The response of vegetation to fire is reasonably well understood, but the use of fire for conservation purposes remains controversial because of key gaps in understanding. These gaps include whether or not the vegetation is resilient to increases in fire frequency, how to deal with fire-sensitive forests embedded in fire-prone shrublands, and how to integrate fire and invasive alien plant control. National legislation emphasizes the need to protect communities from dangerous wildfires, and this compels fire managers to adopt a cautious approach to the application of fire. Ecological outcomes are optimized under a fire regime of relatively high-intensity, dry-season fires. Obtaining permission to burn under such conditions is not possible, and so the practice of prescribed burning is constrained, and this results in a fire regime dominated by wildfires. Ecological uncertainties, and the divergent requirements for maintaining healthy ecosystems on the one hand, and ensuring human safety on the other, result in a complex fire management environment. These complexities could be, and in some cases are being, alleviated by raising awareness, increasing fire management capacity, improving ecological monitoring of the effects of fire, and prioritizing areas for integrated fire and invasive alien plant management.

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[76]
Wescott G C.1991. Australia's distinctive national parks system[J]. Environmental Conservation, 18(4): 331-340.Australia possesses a distinctive national parks and conservation reserves system, in which it is the State Governments rather than the Federal Government which owns, plans, and manages, national parks and other conservation reserves. Most Australian States declared their first national parks in the latter quarter of last century, Australia's first national park being declared in New South Wales in March 1879. These critical declarations were followed by a slow accumulation of parks and reserves through to 1968. The pace of acquisition then quickened dramatically with an eight-fold expansion in the total area of national parks between 1968 and 1990, at an average rate of over 750,000 ha per annum. The present Australian system contains 530 national parks covering 20.18 million hectares or 2.6% of the land-mass. A further 28.3 million hectares is protected in other parks and conservation reserves. In terms of the percentage of their land-mass now in national parks, the leading States are Tasmania (12.8%) and Victoria (10.0%), with Western Australia (1.9%) and Queensland (2.1%) trailing far behind, and New South Wales (3.92%) and South Australia (3.1%) lying between. The Australian system is also compared with the Canadian and USA systems. All three are countries of widely comparable cultures that have national parks covering similar percentage areas, but Canada and the USA have far fewer national parks than Australia and they are in general of much greater size. In addition, Canada and the USA esource these parks far better than the Australians do theirs. The paper concludes that Australia needs to rationalize its current system by introducing direct funding, by the Federal Government, of national park management, and duly examining the whole system of reserves from a national rather than States' viewpoint.

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[77]
Wilson E, Nielsen N, Buultjens J.2009. From lessees to partners: Exploring tourism public-private partnerships within the New South Wales national parks and wildlife service[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(2): 269-285.In a "new" protected-area management paradigm which requires close working relationships with a range of stakeholders, it is important that national parks managers recognise the individual interests of each group with whom they are expected to collaborate. A substantial body of research has investigated non-commercial collaborative activities among natural resource managers, tourism organisatio...

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[78]
Wolf I D, Stricker H K, Hagenloh G.2015. Outcome-focused national park experience management: Transforming participants, promoting social well-being, and fostering place attachment[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(3): 358-381.Understanding visitor experiences is essential if park managers are to facilitate beneficial outcomes for both individuals and society. We investigated visitor experiences in a special model of thematically connected guided walking, biking, and 4WD tours in Australian national parks. Outcomes attained by first-time and repeat participants were assessed by questionnaires with more detailed insights from semi-structured interviews with repeat participants. Participants developed strong social ties with community members and experienced significant improvements in health, well-being, and competence, gaining a sense of achievement from mastering a challenge with positive implications for their lives beyond the tours. The tour series performed well in achieving visitor satisfaction, repeat participation, and word-of-mouth recommendation. The experience increased participants attachment to national parks, reinforcing their sense of environmental stewardship. The findings are especially relevant to efforts in parks and elsewhere to better integrate senior citizens into the community and provide opportunities to increase their physical, mental, and social well-being. Such opportunities become limited, for example, when people retire from work or suffer health impairment. The tour series proved an effective tool for outcome-focused park management, providing significant personal benefits to participants with positive implications for larger societal benefits, plus political and financial advantages for park managements.

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[79]
Xu F F, Fox D.2014. Modelling attitudes to nature, tourism and sustainable development in national parks: A survey of visitors in China and the UK[J]. Tourism Management, 45: 142-158.This research undertook a visitor survey in two protected areas in different cultural contexts, namely China and the UK, to explore whether the value a person attaches to the environment influences their attitude towards sustainable tourism development in national parks. Structural equation models were developed with data from 597 and 368 questionnaires collected in Jiuzhaigou National Scenic Area, China and the New Forest National Park, UK respectively. The results suggested that anthropocentric or ecocentric values significantly influence people's attitudes to tourism and sustainable development. The same structured causal relationship was found in both samples, between people's attitudes towards the natural environment, conservation and tourism in a national park context.

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[80]
Zhong L S, Deng J Y, Xiang B H.2008. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China[J]. Tourism Management, 29(5): 841-856.The conceptual framework of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) has been frequently examined since it was first proposed by Butler in 1980. However. few studies have applied the concept to national parks and other protected areas. This paper examines the applicability of the model to China's Zhangjiajie National Forest Park. In addition, both external and internal factors affecting the park's tourism development as well as the environmental, social, and economic changes of the area are also discussed. Results indicate that the park has experienced the first four stages as described in Butler's 1980 seminal paper [The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24, 5-12]. Currently, the park is in the consolidation stage. Both governments and the private sector are major players as catalysts for the park's tourism development from one stage to the next. While the local or even regional economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism, the park has also been experiencing noticeable transformation and loss of traditional cultures since its inception in 1982. Finally limitations to the current paper are outlined. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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[81]
Zhou L, Seethal C E P.2011. Tourism policy, biodiversity conservation and management: A case of the Kruger National Park, South Africa[J]. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 18(5): 393-403.Management of Kruger National Park (KNP) has recently made considerable progress in developing new policies to address biodiversity conservation and management challenges. These include tourism, water provision and elephant management policies. This study examines the integration of these three policies with regard to biodiversity conservation and management. Findings indicate that in their current fragmented form, the three policies actually undermine opportunities for effective biodiversity conservation and management in the KNP. This can be reversed by adopting a new management approach based on an environmental matrix organizational framework. Such a framework provides a mechanism for integrated policymaking and implementation and for improving biodiversity conservation and management in the KNP. The study concludes that an integrated approach is necessary due to the interlinkages between policies that affect biodiversity conservation at the KNP.

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