地理科学进展  2019 , 38 (4): 520-532 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.005

研究综述

社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中的应用进展

张红霞12, 苏勤1, 张影莎3

1. 安徽师范大学地理与旅游学院,安徽 芜湖 241000
2. 江苏师范大学历史文化与旅游学院,江苏 徐州 221116
3. 新西兰怀卡托大学管理学院,新西兰 汉密尔顿 3240

Progress in the application of social network analysis in international tourism research

ZHANG Hongxia12, SU Qin1, ZHANG Yingsha3

1. School of Geography and Tourism, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu 241000, Anhui, China
2. School of History Culture and Tourism, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, Jiangsu, China
3. Waikato Management School, University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand

收稿日期: 2018-06-27

修回日期:  2018-09-4

网络出版日期:  2019-04-28

版权声明:  2019 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金青年项目(41701147)江苏省教育厅高校哲社项目(2015SJB403)

作者简介:

第一作者简介:张红霞(1982— ),女,安徽宣城人,博士生,讲师,主要从事旅游社会文化影响和旅游社会关系研究。E-mail: zhx2246@163.com

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摘要

近年来社会网络分析在旅游相关研究中表现出超强的适应性,成为国内外旅游研究的流行范式之一。论文从研究视角和方法、研究内容以及中层理论的应用3个方面分析了国际旅游研究的十大权威期刊2009—2018年发表的社会网络分析相关文献67篇。在全面、系统、深入地梳理与分析的基础上,与10 a前相关文献综述进行对比,总结出近10 a社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中最新的进展。研究发现:① 近10 a相关成果的研究视角进一步完善,表现为自我中心社会网视角以及与整体网结合的双重视角的研究成果显著增加;② 研究方法多样化,关系数据的来源更加丰富,融合相关性分析等各类统计分析技术的定量研究成为主流,扎根理论等定性研究方法也开始应用;③ 研究对象从传统的目的地合作网、政策网等扩展至居民关系网、超链接网、口碑分享网、旅游形象网等;④ 研究内容从旅游社会关系网络结构的描述与分析转向关系网络的影响因素和效应分析,社会关系网络的形成、发展以及演化研究等;⑤ 社会网络分析相关中层理论的应用也有所拓展,其中社会资本理论对旅游相关议题的解释力进一步凸显,这体现了社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用由变量测度到测度解释的转向。最后,文章总结了社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中应用存在的问题与难点,并展望了未来相关研究的方向。研究成果有助于全面把握旅游社会网络分析的最新研究动态与趋势,为进一步拓展和深化社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用奠定基础。

关键词: 社会网络分析 ; 旅游研究 ; 整体网 ; 自我中心社会网 ; 关系网络

Abstract

In recent years, social network analysis (SNA) has been widely adopted in tourism research to become one of the most popular tourism research paradigms in China and internationally. This study analyzed 67 articles on SNA published in the top 10 authoritative international journals of tourism research from 2009 to 2018. Concepts of interest included SNA research perspectives and methods, research contents, and application of relevant theories. On the basis of a comprehensive, systematic analysis, the results of this study were compared with those of a literature review from 10 years ago. Findings provided an overview of international research progress in SNA in tourism within the past decade and revealed several trends. First, research perspectives have improved during the past 10 years, as evidenced by a remarkable increase in research results from an egocentric network perspective and its integration with the whole-network perspective. Second, research methods have diversified; sources of relational data have become richer, various statistical analysis techniques (e.g., correlation analysis) have been applied, and research using these quantitative techniques has entered the mainstream. Some researchers have also begun to use qualitative research methods, such as grounded theory. Third, research objects have expanded from destination cooperative networks and policy networks to residents' relational networks, hyperlink networks, electronic word-of-mouth networks, and tourism image networks. Fourth, the research focus has shifted from describing and analyzing network structures to examining influencing factors and effects along with the formation, development, and change of networks. Finally, application of relevant SNA theories has expanded; studies using the theory of social capital appear relatively rich, and the strong explanatory power of this theory on tourism-related issues has been revealed. These results reflect a shift in tourism SNA research from measuring variables to interpreting and explaining them. In this paper, we summarized the challenges associated with applying SNA in tourism research internationally and provided recommendations for future SNA research in China. This study contextualized the latest research trends in applying SNA to tourism studies and laid a foundation for subsequent work.

Keywords: social network analysis ; tourism research ; the whole network ; egocentric network ; relationship networks

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张红霞, 苏勤, 张影莎. 社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中的应用进展[J]. 地理科学进展, 2019, 38(4): 520-532 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.005

ZHANG Hongxia, SU Qin, ZHANG Yingsha. Progress in the application of social network analysis in international tourism research[J]. Progress in Geography, 2019, 38(4): 520-532 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.04.005

社会网络分析源于西方社会学,是基于图论的思想从群体动力学角度来考察社会实体(个体、社会组织等)间的关系连接及其结构特征的一种研究取向(Wasserman et al, 1994)。自20世纪30年代兴起以来,社会网络分析凭借形象化的表达和精确量化的方法体系,迅速发展成为西方社会学的主流(邹晴晴等, 2016)。它既是一种理论范式,又可以看作一种研究方法(林聚任, 2009),并且尤其擅长对各类复杂系统的网络结构进行分析,因此近年来在经济学(徐振宇, 2013)、管理学(Parmigiani et al, 2011)等多学科被广泛应用,研究对象从传统的小群体关系(Marsden, 1987)、家庭与社会支持网(Van del Poel, 1993)等迅速扩展到人类社会生活的各个领域(林聚任, 2009)。1980年,Allen首次应用社会网络分析对美国大都市8~13岁儿童远足同伴的选择进行了探讨(Allen, 1980),从而开启了社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用,但此后这一领域并未引起足够重视(Morrison et al, 2004; Sørensen, 2007)。直到21世纪初,充斥着重叠、交错的多重关系的旅游系统与社会网络分析的研究思路和方法的“契合性”(刘冰, 2015)才引起相关学者的关注,并逐渐成为旅游研究的一种绝佳范式(Scott et al, 2008; 王素洁等, 2009),为探索复杂旅游系统中的合作、信任、互相依赖、相互作用、利益冲突、领导者以及利益相关者之间的各类问题提供了思路(Albrecht, 2013)。

Scott等(2008)曾预言:以社会网络分析为突破口,旅游研究将成为其他领域的领导者而非追随者,如今“网络”已经成为国外旅游研究的热门话题(刘法建等, 2016),运用社会网络分析对各类旅游现象和关系进行探讨已经成为学界流行范式,相关研究成果开始涌现。根据刘佳等(2016)的统计,2000—2010年10 a间国外旅游主流期刊发表社会网络分析相关论文137篇,国内同期为40篇;而2010—2016年仅6 a国外相关成果突增为334篇,国内则为207篇。近几年国内已有学者分别从理论思想(刘冰, 2015)和旅游目的地的关系网络(刘法建等, 2016)等方面对相关研究进行了综述分析,但更加系统全面地探讨社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中应用的最新进展仍然颇具意义。厘清社会网络分析对旅游相关议题的最新研究状况、有效性以及在旅游研究中的拓展方向,将有助于学界更加清晰地认识社会网络分析与旅游研究的契合性,为深化国内相关研究奠定基础。本文拟在王素洁等(2009)所作的国外社会网络范式下旅游研究述评(其文献搜索截至2008年)的基础上,对2009年以来国际旅游研究权威期刊上发表的社会网络分析的应用成果进行梳理分析,力图呈现社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中应用的最新动态与进展,并就存在的问题与难点以及未来相关研究的方向进行讨论。

1 文献来源与概况

本文梳理了2009—2018年10 a间国外旅游类权威学术期刊上发表的社会网络分析应用研究的相关文章。为确保文献的代表性和权威性,根据“Web of Science”最新发布的2017年旅游和酒店领域SSCI最新的影响因子排名,选取国际旅游研究影响因子前10位的权威期刊:《Tourism Management》《Journal of Travel Research》《Annals of Tourism Research》《Journal of Destination Marketing & Management》《Current Issues in Tourism》《International Journal of Hospitality Management》《Journal of Sustainable Tourism》《International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management》《Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research》《Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management》,进行文献检索。检索关键词包括:Social Network Analysis、Network Analysis、SNA、Ucinet等,检索数据库主要为Scopus、Science Direct、Taylor & Francis等,共获得相关文献近100篇。在浏览性阅读的基础上进行筛选,剔除提到“社会网络”但并未采用社会网络分析的思路、方法或者核心思想的论文,最终获得社会网络分析的应用文献67篇。总体而言,成果的分布呈逐年增长之势,主要为实证研究,理论研究较少。研究案例地遍布全球,以中国、美国、韩国和欧洲国家的一些旅游目的地为主体。2/3的文献为单案例地研究,虽然有1/3左右的文献选取多个案例地,但进行横向对比研究的非常少。

2 社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中的应用

社会网络分析之所以能开启社会学中社会关系研究的新范式,并在多学科广泛应用,得益于2个方面:首先,数学和图论理论的应用使得基于大样本关系数据的网络结构测度成为可能;更重要的则在于社会网络分析中层理论的发展,如“弱关系”(Granovetter, 1973, 1983)、“结构洞”(Burt, 1992)、社会资本(Lin, 2001)等理论的出现,使得社会网络分析从网络变量测度转向测度变量的有效解释,从而能够在许多社会现象的研究中制定出具体的因果模型(罗家德, 2005),大大深化了关系网络研究的意义。下文分别从研究视角与方法、研究内容和相关中层理论的应用3个方面阐述社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中的应用状况。

2.1 研究视角与方法

从研究视角与研究方法两方面对所有文献进行梳理分析,并与王素洁等(2009)的研究进行对比分析,如表1所示。

表1   2009—2018年相关成果的研究视角与方法总结

Tab.1   Research perspectives and methods of the published articles, 2009-2018

研究视角定量定性两者结合具体分析方法数据来源
整体网3352相关性分析、聚类分析、回归分析、结构方程模型、网络计量技术、文本分析、时间指数随机图模型、GIS等问卷调查(实地、在线)、深度访谈、二手数据收集(报纸新闻、普查数据、网络数据抓取)
自我中心网232民族志、扎根理论、内容分析、相关性分析、回归分析访谈、非参与式观察、问卷调查(实地、在线)、二手数据收集(统计数据、档案等)
双重视角521网络、民族志、回归分析等访谈、焦点小组采访、在线问卷调查、二手数据收集(文献数据库)
内容研究时段研究特征
研究视角与研究方法新进展2009年以前(王素洁等, 2009)以整体网为主,自我中心社会网为辅;以定性研究为主,定量研究显著不足;多为零散的案例研究,理论提升少
2009—2018年自我中心社会网视角以及双重视角下的相关研究有所增多,探讨目的地居民关系、电子口碑关系网络等;定量分析显著增加,并逐渐成为主流,将网络指标作为变量,进而分析相关指标与旅游发展各类问题的关系;数据来源更加丰富,网络数据抓取等开始应用,研究方法多元化;理论总结与提升仍然缺失

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2.1.1 研究视角

社会网络分析的研究视角有2种:从个体行动者视角出发的自我中心社会网(the egocentric network)和从全体行动者视角出发的整体网(the whole network)(Scott et al, 2008)。自我中心社会网的分析焦点是特定行动者的网络连带情况,由于对网络边界和规模没有严格的限制,在传统社会关系的探讨方面比整体网应用更加广泛;整体网则擅长于分析测度所有行动者组成的封闭网的关系结构,在边界明确的小群体关系结构的探讨方面非常有优势(Ofem et al, 2013)。

选择社会网络分析的何种视角展开研究是由研究问题和分析对象决定的。选定的67篇文献,除去12篇文献没有明确使用整体或者自我中心社会网视角外,其余55篇文献有40篇采用整体社会网视角,分析对象包括旅游目的地的环境治理网和合作网、旅游研究合作网、游客活动和旅游流网络、目的地电子口碑网络等的结构、行动者的位置以及行动者之间的关系等;7篇采用自我中心社会网视角,主要分析旅游目的地的居民、创业者、移民、企业等的社会关系网络构成;还有8篇文献综合了2种研究视角,探讨旅游合作研究、航空公司合作以及电子口碑虚拟网络的整体结构与节点的个体网。总体上看(表1),虽然社会网络分析在旅游中的应用研究仍然以整体网视角为主,但自我中心社会网视角和双重视角的研究开始增长,约占总成果的1/4。

2.1.2 研究方法

首先,超过2/3的文献采用定量分析方法展开研究。分析旅游业中各类关系网络的结构特征,或者在社会网络分析的思路下,辅以相关性分析、回归分析、结构方程模型等研究方法,将网络的相关指标作为分析变量,探讨关系网络的结构和相关行为的相互影响。社会关系网络的内部复杂性使得定性研究方法一直被热衷(Jack et al, 2008),近10 a相关定性研究成果主要以扎根理论、文本分析等方法对关系数据进行收集处理,分析基于行动者间联系的社会资本的影响、社会关系网络结构及演化等。定量和定性相结合的研究成果比较少。

其次,社会网络分析本身的软件工具和分析方法在旅游研究中的应用较为局限。软件工具方面,关系数据的可视化分析基本都采用Ucinet软件,而典型的社会网络分析软件如Netdraw(Ying et al, 2011; Benckendorff et al, 2013; Ying et al, 2016; Chung, 2017)、Pajek(Köseoglu et al, 2018; Raisi et al, 2018)、Netminer(Hwang et al, 2013; Hwang et al, 2017; Lee et al, 2018)等在旅游研究中也开始应用,但总体上种类繁多、功能强大的社会网络分析相关软件在旅游研究中的应用空间待拓展。分析路径主要为通过社群图表征各类旅游社会关系网络的结构,进行网络指标和参数值的测量以及探索性分析,其他分析技术如角色分析、网络位置分析等的应用明显不足。

再次,社会网络分析专门针对关系数据,其常见的数据来源包括一手数据、二手数据和混合数据。一手数据主要通过访谈、问卷调查等方式获取,二手数据则包括各类数据库、文档以及统计数据等,混合数据指二者的结合(Kim et al, 2018)。总体上,近10 a相关研究的数据来源较为丰富,以一手调查数据为主,通过深度访谈、问卷调查(包括线上和线下调查)、焦点小组等方式获取资料,辅以二手数据。但是由于访谈等一手数据很难获取时间跨度较长的演化数据(Kim et al, 2018),因此也有较多成果直接以二手数据作为关系数据开展旅游社会网络分析,如基于各类文献数据库搜索及筛选的旅游研究网络分析(Racherla et al, 2010; Ying et al, 2011; Benckendorff et al, 2013; Nunkoo et al, 2013; Ye et al, 2013; García-Lillo et al, 2016; Fan et al, 2017; García-Lillo et al, 2018; Köseoglu et al, 2018)、基于网络抓取数据的在线社会网络研究等(Williams et al, 2017; Raisi et al, 2018),此外各类档案和普查数据(Ness et al, 2014)、报刊文章(Kim et al, 2018)也成为相关研究的资料来源。每一种数据收集方式都有其优劣势,如近年来流行的网上调查作为重要的资料收集途径,有其不足之处,但由于受调研对象的地理分布和调研时间限制较小,也是可选的数据收集方式(Aubke et al, 2014)。灵活采用多种来源数据开展研究可以拓展社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用广度和深度。

2.2 研究内容

从研究内容上看,社会网络分析主要关注旅游目的地网络、旅游学术合作网络和旅游相关人群之间关系网络3个方面。其中,旅游目的地网络一直是社会网络分析在旅游研究中应用的热点议题,近10 a相关成果仍然以这一议题为主;旅游学术合作网络成果也较为集中;而旅游相关人群的社会关系研究则是近10 a的新兴研究议题,具体如表2所示。

表2   2009—2018年旅游社会网络分析的研究内容与进展概况

Tab.2   Contents and progress of social network analysis in tourism research, 2009-2018

研究议题研究内容研究进展
旅游目的地网络从供给出发目的地各类合作网络(Beritelli, 2011; Schaffer et al, 2012; Hwang et al, 2013; Kimbu et al, 2013; Lee et al, 2013; Ying et al, 2015; Luo et al, 2016; Kang et al, 2018)
线上网络(Luo et al, 2015; Ying et al, 2016; Raisi et al, 2018)
关系网络的演化(Ye et al, 2013; Pavlovich, 2014; Kim et al, 2018)
网络结构的影响(Denicolai et al, 2010; Erkuş-Öztürk et al, 2010; Romeiro et al, 2010; Hwang et al, 2013; Ness et al, 2014; Ying et al, 2015; Luo et al, 2016; Hwang et al, 2017; Aarstad et al, 2018; Pulido-Fernández et al, 2018)
网络结构的影响因素(Strobl et al, 2013; Aubke et al, 2014; Ying et al, 2017; Kelliher et al, 2018)
各类细分网络、线上网络、不同网络之间的相互作用以及网络演化等议题受到关注;单纯以探讨网络结构为目的的成果减少,由网络结构的描述分析转向探讨网络结构的影响,即网络的效应分析;以网络和关系为切入点进行旅游目的地发展的相关问题探讨
行动者的网络位置对信息扩散与分享(Ness et al, 2014)、创新意识(Zach et al, 2017)、资源获取能力和声望(Ford et al, 2012)、社区参与(Hwang et al, 2013)等的影响将网络位置指标作为分析变量,分析行动者位置的影响
从需求出发区域吸引物网络的结构 (Stienmetz et al, 2015; Asero et al, 2016; Liu et al, 2017; Kang et al, 2018)和演化(Lee et al, 2018)
关系网络形成的潜在机制(Liu et al, 2017)
旅游目的地形象网络结构(Tasci et al, 2018; Wang et al, 2018)
由基于宏观旅游流转向基于微观旅游者移动角度的目的地网络研究;关注网络结构演化和旅游形象要素网
旅游学术研究网络合著网的结构(Racherla et al, 2010; Ye et al, 2013)及演化(Nunkoo et al, 2013; Fan et al, 2017; Köseoglu et al, 2018)
共引、共被引网络(Benckendorff et al, 2013; García-Lillo et al, 2016; García-Lillo et al, 2018)
研究主题的网络特征(Nunkoo et al, 2013)及演化(Ying et al, 2011)
研究更加细致和深入,开始关注旅游分支领域的合作研究和知识结构、具体的研究内容和研究主题等议题;开展横向跨学科对比研究和纵向演化研究;社会网络的分析软件和技术应用较为深入
旅游相关人群的关系网络居民(Hwang et al, 2013; Hwang et al, 2017)、旅游从业移民(Janta et al, 2012)的社会关系网络
游客的线上网络(Luo et al, 2015)
主客双方的线上网络(Chung, 2017)
涉及旅游业务双方相关人群的关系网络和线上网络;研究方法多样化,如民族志、扎根理论、回归分析等的应用;成果还较为零散和有限

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2.2.1 旅游目的地网络

在当代旅游业发展过程中,旅游目的地的“社会关系网络核心竞争力”不可忽视(Denicolai et al, 2010),已有研究主要从旅游供给与需求2个角度展开。从旅游供给出发,各类旅游机构、组织之间的关系和互动是研究的焦点;而从需求出发,研究者主要关注游客流动与旅游流(Liu et al, 2017)。

近10 a目的地网络研究主要从旅游供给角度出发,探讨整体视角的网络结构特征及演化、不同网络结构的影响、网络结构的影响因素等以及个体视角的行动者位置的影响和作用。① 关系网络结构研究指各类合作网,包括业务网(Denicolai et al, 2010)、环境治理网(Erkuş-Öztürk et al, 2010)、信息传递与知识分享网(Luo et al, 2016)、空间关系网(Lee et al, 2013)以及新兴的虚拟在线关系网络等。其中,超链接网(Ying et al, 2016; Raisi et al, 2018)、口碑分享网(Williams et al, 2017)等在线关系网络的结构分析,对于理解旅游目的地的实际关系网络状况以及旅游营销效果颇具意义。除此之外,网络结构的演化研究开始出现。王素洁等(2009)提到,从网络视角探讨旅游目的地动态发展可能是未来研究的重点,网络的演化研究具有更强的解释力和预测性(黎耀奇等, 2013)。近10 a相关学者对旅游目的地网络结构的动态演化研究进行了很好的尝试,如Pavlovich(2014)关于新西兰怀托摩洞目的地网络、Schaffer等(2012)关于昆士兰人工珊瑚礁保护公园利益相关者网络以及Kim等(2018)对韩国相关旅游组织和机构网络的演化研究等。② 关于网络结构的影响,包括对目的地竞争力(Denicolai et al, 2010)、旅游业发展水平(Pulido-Fernández et al, 2018)以及可持续发展(Erkuşöztürk et al, 2010)的影响,对行动者的社区参与(Hwang et al, 2013)、模仿战略(Aarstad et al, 2018)的影响,以及对网络内的知识扩散与信息传递(Luo et al, 2016)的影响。那么到底何种类型的目的地关系网络利于旅游业发展呢?相关研究显示(Denicolai et al, 2010; Kimbu et al, 2013):紧密高质量的目的地合作网有利于集权协调,有利于目的地核心竞争力的增强,而让所有利益相关者都参与的分权旅游网络又可以提高旅游发展成功的机会。③ 影响网络形成和结构的相关因素,包括行动者个体的性格特征(Ying et al, 2017)、经历(Aubke et al, 2014)、声望(Strobl et al, 2013)以及网络行为(Hwang et al, 2017; Kelliher et al, 2018),行动者之间的信任(Kelliher et al, 2018)等。④ 行动者在关系网络中的具体位置对于其资源获取能力和网络内的信息传递与知识分享(Ness et al, 2014),甚至成为创新伙伴的可能性(Zach et al, 2017)都有着至关重要的作用。

从需求角度基于游客旅行活动轨迹分析区域或目的地关系网络结构也颇为流行,被誉为目的地管理中的“旅游者网络范式”(Stienmetz et al, 2015)。虽然旅游者与目的地之间有空间距离,但他们的旅游决策与行为却可以直接影响目的地网络的结构(Asero et al, 2016)。早期研究多为基于宏观旅游流的区域旅游网络结构研究,近年来学者们开始从微观的游客在目的地旅行活动视角,分析游客和旅游景点之间的互动网络(Stienmetz et al, 2015; Asero et al, 2016; García-Lillo et al, 2018)及其演化(Lee et al, 2018),为目的地网络的战略管理提供了科学依据。但鲜有研究探讨旅游目的地关系网络形成的潜在机制。仅Liu等(2017)测度了中国新疆各等级景点的区域接近性、等级接近性和声望接近性与目的地景点网络之间的关系,对这一议题展开了尝试研究。除此之外,Wang等(2018)Tasci等(2018)分别尝试将社会网络分析引入目的地形象和品牌要素的探讨,进一步拓展了社会网络分析在旅游目的地相关网络中的应用范畴。

2.2.2 旅游学术合作网络

社会网络分析是近年来学术合作研究流行的方法之一(Fan et al, 2017),其独到的优势主要在于有利于从整体理解网络成员间的知识协作以及资源在知识网络中的有效性以及分享度(Haythornthwaite, 1996)。旅游学术合作网络研究的相关成果一直较为集中,虽然有学者曾指出过于集中的这类研究对于促进旅游发展实践作用并不显著(Casanueva et al, 2016),但近10 a该议题相关研究有了较大突破。① 虽然旅游研究的合著网(Racherla et al, 2010)和共引网(Benckendorff, 2013; García-Lillo et al, 2016; García-Lillo et al, 2018)仍然是关注的焦点,但是研究对象进一步细化,例如对酒店管理领域(García-Lillo et al, 2016)、旅游与酒店管理领域的人力资源管理(García-Lillo et al, 2018)等学术社区结构的探讨;内容更加深入,如Köseoglu等(2018)对住宿业研究领域的合著网结构进行了横向时间序列和纵向跨领域的对比研究,这对于理解该领域学术研究的结构非常有意义。② 旅游学术合作网络的影响因素曾是相对忽视的议题。Fan等(2017)尝试从学术产出和中介中心性2个指标识别合作网络中的关键学者,并探讨了关键学者的变化对整个学术网络结构的影响。③ 研究主题间联系的变化直接表征一个学科领域的演进过程(Ben-David, 1964),近年来相关旅游研究主题的关系网络结构(Nunkoo et al, 2013)和结构演化等(Ying et al, 2011)开始受到关注。这些研究议题的拓展有利于研究者掌握旅游学术领域研究动态与未来趋势。

2.2.3 旅游相关人群的社会关系网络

旅游是现代社会最大规模的人际交往活动(Murphy, 2013)。旅游业发展过程中涉及的各类人群社会关系网络状况具体包括作为旅游接待东道主的居民和旅游从业移民内部及之间的关系、客体的旅游者内部关系以及主客双方的关系。作为东道主的目的地居民个人的社会网络质量,包括网络构成、密度以及在网络中位置等与其旅游参与程度直接相关(Hwang et al, 2013; Hwang et al, 2017)。如居民与社区领导关系网络越紧密,他们作为社区力量的一部分推动旅游发展的可能性越大(Hwang et al, 2017);而目的地社区整体的居民关系网络状况则会直接影响居民的社区行为(Ying et al, 2015)。对于外来移民而言,参与旅游业发展是他们扩展和融入地方社区关系网络的重要途径,如有助于语言学习等(Janta et al, 2012)。旅游者内部和主客双方关系的研究焦点为在线虚拟关系网,主客双方的在线关系网络多基于实际面对面交流而建立起来,在这个过程中,作为“主人”的居民角色非常重要(Chung, 2017)。旅游者在线口碑分享网络一般则较为松散,主要的作用是信息分享(Luo et al, 2015)。

2.3 中层理论的应用

2009年之前,社会网络分析相关中层理论在旅游研究中仅有零星应用成果,“弱关系”之于旅游组织间关系(Pavlovich, 2003)、“结构洞”之于目的地间网络结构(Shih, 2006)、社会资本之于目的地网络内的知识转移与分享(Saxena, 2005)。而近10 a应用相关核心中层理论对关系网络测度结果进行阐释并扩展的研究成果明显增多,仍然以“弱关系”“结构洞”和社会资本理论的应用研究为主,从组织间关系网络到人际关系网络、从实际关系网络到线上虚拟网络,这其中社会资本理论的应用最为广泛。但是社会网络分析的其他中层理论,如“机会链”“小群体”等理论的应用成果还非常少。

2.3.1 “弱关系”理论

M. S. Granovetter将人们的交往关系分为“强关系”和“弱关系”。他认为“弱关系”更倾向于将不同群体联系起来,因此它们成为强联系群体间“桥”的可能性比较大,在扩展个人机会以及融入社会等方面有着不可替代的作用(Granovetter, 1973, 1983)。“弱关系”理论在旅游研究中的应用主要体现在2个方面,即旅游目的地相关企业或组织间的关系强度以及旅游相关人群之间的关系,重点仍然是探讨“弱关系”“桥”的作用的体现,如图1,例如旅游目的地的弱关系可以传递多种资源,增加新价值(Pavlovich, 2014)。Lee等(2018)认为需求视角的目的地关系网络中的弱关系表征了旅游市场的新需求,是目的地未来发展需关注的方向。在线口碑分享网络主体之间的“弱关系”一般有着强有力的信息传递作用和营销效果(Luo et al, 2015)。而在一些旅行决策中,比如VFR(visiting friends / relatives),旅游者与探访对象关系的强弱则对其旅游决策有较大影响(Gafter et al, 2017)。关于关系强度的影响因素,Ying等(2017)的研究发现:在旅游业务网络的建立过程中,旅游从业人员特别是经营者的性格特征直接影响其业务网络的关系强度。

图1   “弱关系”理论的应用示意图
注:节点可以是旅游利益相关者、目的地、企业或相关人群;实线表示强关系, 虚线表示弱关系。

Fig.1   Application of the weak tie theory

2.3.2 “结构洞”理论

R. S. Burt的“结构洞”理论将社会关系研究的视线转向个体在网络中的位置,认为行动者在网络中的位置比关系的强弱更为重要,强调占据结构洞位置的个体可以为其他个体和组织提供信息和资源,也拥有信息优势和控制优势(Burt, 1992)。在旅游社会关系网络中,结构洞位置直接关系到行动者获取资源的能力,也更利于信息传递与知识分享(Pavlovich, 2014),如图2所示。Racherla等(2010)运用“结构洞”理论对旅游合作研究网络进行分析发现:处于结构洞位置的关键学者可以将各地的学者联合起来开展合作研究,这种合作可以获取的资源是单个学者无法比拟的。

图2   “结构洞”理论的应用示意图
注:节点可以是旅游利益相关者、目的地、企业或相关人群;实线表示强关系,虚线表示弱关系;节点B、C、F均处于结构洞位置,利于资源获取和信息传递。

Fig.2   Application of the structural holes theory

2.3.3 社会资本理论

林南认为社会资本是在目的性行动中被获取的或被动员的、嵌入在社会结构中的资源,它根植于社会关系中,社会关系会促进或者约束行动者对社会资本的获取和使用(Lin, 2001)。“社会资本”理论进一步扩展了社会关系网络中“弱关系”“结构洞”的作用,为解释社会关系及相关的现象提供了一个新视角(林聚任, 2009)。但是很长时间内,社会资本理论在旅游研究中并未受到较多关注(Jeong, 2008),近10 a有所改观。

旅游研究中的社会资本有两种:一是区域和地方层面,与旅游业发展的过程和产出相关;另一个是行动者个体层面,与旅游企业或居民相联系(Zhou et al, 2017)。在区域层面,相关文献主要以社区社会资本为研究对象,探讨群体层次的社会资本与旅游业发展之间的关系:高水平的社区社会资本对居民社区参与的推动作用(Hwang et al, 2017)、对居民的环境友好行为和社区维护行为的显著正向作用(Liu et al, 2014; Ying et al, 2015) 等。而影响社区社会资本的主要因素有:旅游业务类型和合作状况(Park et al, 2012)、居民的居住时长和社区文化资本(McGehee et al, 2010)等。在个体社会资本层面,主要探讨个人或机构的社会资本状况及其影响,如社会资本状况对研究者开展合作研究的范围与广度(Racherla et al, 2010)、乡村旅游社区管理者的领导力的影响(McGehee et al, 2015),对老年旅游者重游意愿(Kim et al, 2016)和移民返乡旅行决策(Hung et al, 2013)的影响等。对于旅游企业而言,社会资本状况则直接决定其运营初期的项目获取和社区融入能力(Zhao et al, 2011)以及日常经营中的组织学习、知识分享与传递的能力(Liu, 2018)。

3 总结与展望

3.1 总结

综上所述,近10 a社会网络分析在国外旅游研究中的应用范围更加广阔、研究问题更加深入与细化。研究对象从传统的目的地合作网、政策网等扩展至居民关系网、超链接网、口碑分享网以及旅游形象网等新议题。研究内容则从网络结构描述逐渐向网络变量解释与应用转变,主要表现在以下几个方面:从注重网络连接的数量转向关注关系网络的质量,从集中于网络结构的分析描述转向探讨关系网络的形成、发展、效应等研究,从早期聚焦网络节点与连接转向分析网络所处的环境、网络空间等,以及核心中层理论的应用拓展等,具体见图3

图3   社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用概况

Fig.3   Application of social network analysis in tourism research

但总体而言,社会网络分析的思想与方法在旅游研究中的应用,无论是研究对象的广泛性(刘法建等, 2016)还是技术手段应用的深入性方面(Casanueva et al, 2016)都略显不足,存在以下问题与难点:

第一,从研究视角看,整体网与自我中心社会网各有优势,整体网研究的结果应结合节点个体关系数据和文化要素展开解释才更加系统、也更具意义,但目前双重视角下的研究成果还比较少,关系数据的收集难度较高是主要障碍。整体网视角下的旅游研究面临的主要困难是网络边界的确定(Dredge, 2006)和数据的收集。自我中心社会网视角下,恰当地选择个体行动者并获取客观、全面的关系网数据则非常关键,但难度较大,特别是演化数据获取非常困难。因此,如何在科学界定旅游相关社会关系网络的边界、扩展数据来源并量化关系数据的基础上灵活采用整体网和自我中心社会网视角开展相关研究是未来社会网络分析应用研究需要攻克的基础难题。现代信息技术快速发展背景下的旅游虚拟关系数据、相关电子数据库、大数据等的出现为攻克这一难题提供了可选路径,如科学使用在线虚拟关系网络表征旅游行动者之间的真实关系网络状况等(Baggio et al, 2010; Ying et al, 2016)。

第二,研究方法方面,社会网络分析本身的系列方法与技术在旅游研究中应用非常有限(Wu et al, 2012; Casanueva et al, 2016);此外,定量与定性分析结合的研究成果非常少,尤其是网络动态分析中的定量分析非常缺失。定量的网络分析方法可以通过测算节点之间联系,为利益相关者有效地开展合作与联系提供建议,指导旅游发展实践(Baggio et al, 2010);而定性研究则有助于更加深入理解旅游相关网络的本质和过程(刘法建等, 2016)。因此,在社会网络分析的应用研究中,应注重定量和定性方法的结合运用,进一步挖掘社会网络分析各类技术与旅游相关研究议题的契合点,深化社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用范畴和意义。

第三,从研究内容上看,以下议题关注不够,有待拓展:① 网络的演化与变迁依然是研究的稀缺区。以目的地网络为例,旅游目的地的演化变迁受内外双重因素的影响,迅速而复杂,甚至是非线性、任意和不可预测的(Pavlovich, 2014),此外,目的地网络演化数据的收集也非常困难,从而限制了该类研究的发展。但归根结底,旅游关系网络演化是由节点连接的建立与解散而带来的(Koka et al, 2006),合作是网络变迁的核心属性,因此未来研究应从利益相关者互动的视角解析旅游目的地网络的演化变迁,关注节点、节点间互动以及网络所处的地理空间(Pavlovich, 2014),注重探讨新模型和方法的适用性(Baggio et al, 2010),进一步扩展多案例地网络的横向对比与单案例地网络的纵向演化研究,以从理论和实践的角度获得更有意义的结果。② 社会网络分析对于旅游相关人群社会关系的探讨还不够系统。旅游是涉及旅游者、旅游从业者、目的地居民、旅游消费移民等各类人群进行各种形式社会交往、遍布全球的社会文化现象(Murphy, 2013)。各类旅游相关群体之间关系网络的形成、演变、重构等是旅游业发展的必然结果。因此,将非常流行且在社会关系研究领域成熟的社会网络分析理论与方法应用于旅游社会关系研究,这将是社会网络分析在旅游研究中应用深入的突破口和重点领域。

第四,社会网络分析中层理论的应用还显著不足,有较大的拓展空间。社会网络分析作为沟通微观社会行为与宏观社会现象之间的桥梁,从大型理论走向多学科广泛应用,主要在于其一系列中层理论的强大解释力(罗家德, 2005)。但已有旅游研究中仅社会资本理论的应用较为广泛,“弱关系”和“结构洞”理论的应用范围有待拓展,其他如“嵌入性”理论、“机会链”理论、“小群体”理论等的应用成果屈指可数,这极大地限制了社会网络分析在旅游研究中的应用范畴。因此积极寻找相关核心理论思想与旅游议题的契合点,拓展中层理论的应用,可能是后续研究探索的方向。

总体而言,通过全面、系统和深入地梳理分析国外旅游社会网络分析的最新研究进展,明晰了未来相关研究可能的趋势与突破口,具有重要的理论和实践意义。在理论方面,通过总结社会网络分析中各中层理论的应用状况和不足,指出了后续研究方向。在方法方面,社会网络分析的整体网和自我中心社会网视角、定性和定量研究在旅游相关议题中的应用均有各自的优缺点和限制性,指出通过双重视角融合、定性定量分析相结合可以深化未来的研究。虽然数据收集一直是社会网络分析应用的一大难点,但虚拟数据、大数据等将在未来扮演重要角色,提供了可选路径。在实践方面,已有各类旅游关系网络的结构、效应等研究成果对于理解旅游各利益相关者之间的合作与共同发展具有重要的指导意义。但是旅游网络的演化与变迁以及旅游相关人群社会关系网络研究的稀缺,则降低了相关成果的实践价值,因此呼吁相关学者未来多关注这些方面的研究,以求突破。

3.2 展望

中国旅游学界近年来也迎来社会网络分析研究的热潮,基于国际相关研究回顾,展望中国未来社会网络分析在旅游研究的应用,需要重点加强以下几个方面:

首先,注重社会网络分析思想的引入与技术的应用。社会网络分析最本质的革新在于从关系的角度出发剖析各类社会现象和结构。因此,旅游研究中引入社会网络分析,首先应注重用“网络”与“联系”的思路和观点剖析各类旅游现象,此外,还应更大范围地探讨社会网络分析的系列技术与工具在旅游研究应用中的适宜性。将社会网络分析思想、方法、技术与中国旅游业发展实际相结合,建构适合中国旅游学科和旅游问题研究的社会网络分析之思路,以丰富旅游学研究的方法体系,并推进社会网络分析理论的发展。

其次,从宏观层面更广阔地开展旅游关系网络研究,拓展旅游目的地的纵向和横向关系网络分析,重点加强跨层面的旅游系统结构研究。开展旅游系统各要素个体特征变动基础上的关系网络结构的演化与对比分析。中国的旅游目的地成长与发展路径与西方国家差距较大(赵政原等, 2019),通过跨时空的目的地关系网络对比分析进而构建“中国特色”旅游目的地演化变迁理论体系颇具意义。此外,全面系统地探索各类旅游社会关系网络的链接产生、网络形成发展以及网络的产出与效益等,以为切实推进网络发展实践提供科学依据。

最后,加强微观层面的旅游系统中各类行动者之间的联系与关系网络研究。积极寻找切入点,运用社会网络分析的中层理论对中国旅游业发展过程中各类行动者,特别是旅游相关人群之间的互动关系进行剖析与解构,关注行动者个体特质对网络形成发展的影响。中国是典型的关系型社会,微观层面旅游相关行动者之间的网络关系尤为值得探讨。反过来,关系网络对于个体行动者行为又有怎样的影响?从而进一步扩展社会网络分析在中国旅游研究中的应用。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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由于旅游目的地系统的多元和综合属性,其研究内容往往呈现跨学科的属性,涵盖地理学、经济学、管理学、社会学等多个领域。20世纪90年代以来,以进化论和复杂系统论为理论基础,强调历史过程和空间异质性的演化经济地理学,因其超越原有的单线逻辑的叙事而受到旅游研究者的关注。作为旅游目的地研究的新范式和新理论,演化经济地理学被应用于旅游目的地的演化路径和演化动力机制,并为其提供了"结构—过程"分析视角。而另一方面,中国旅游目的地的发展及演变,和西方发达国家的经验有着较大区别,只有在充分立足于中国旅游目的地的实际状况和基本国情的基础上,才能够更好地构建"中国特色"的旅游目的地理论体系,探索更为多元化的旅游研究方法。加强与政治经济学和制度经济学研究的结合能够为中国的旅游实践提供较为宏观尺度的政策分析视角,进而有助于旅游公共服务体系的转型升级;加强中微观层面的多尺度耦合机制和多元主体行为研究,将有助于探索不同利益相关者参与下中国旅游目的地的可持续发展路径。
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https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.07.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

公共空间并非“存在即合理”。公共空间网络结构效率折射出社会网络的重构能力、社会资本的建构强度、社会秩序的重塑能力。新型集中社区作为近年大量涌现的新型居住形态,正面临社会关系重构的巨大压力。本文运用社会学的网络分析法研究公共空间网络,并对苏州新型集中社区D的公共空间网络结构进行实证分析,其结论为:公共空间网络的关联度为0.216、中心势0.358、小世界值1.978,表明空间网络整体关联度不足,呈现出破碎化的特征;商业空间整合效应的发挥受到业态配置的影响;居民社会属性对空间网络结构特征造成一定影响。最后,基于“社会—空间”互动逻辑,以社会网络重构为导向,从集中安置模式、公共空间网络优化2个层面,提出新型集中社区有待进一步研究的方向,以期为当前及未来的集中社区规划建设和公共空间整体优化提供科学合理的依据。

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[J]. Progress in Geography, 35(7): 829-838. ]

https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2016.07.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

公共空间并非“存在即合理”。公共空间网络结构效率折射出社会网络的重构能力、社会资本的建构强度、社会秩序的重塑能力。新型集中社区作为近年大量涌现的新型居住形态,正面临社会关系重构的巨大压力。本文运用社会学的网络分析法研究公共空间网络,并对苏州新型集中社区D的公共空间网络结构进行实证分析,其结论为:公共空间网络的关联度为0.216、中心势0.358、小世界值1.978,表明空间网络整体关联度不足,呈现出破碎化的特征;商业空间整合效应的发挥受到业态配置的影响;居民社会属性对空间网络结构特征造成一定影响。最后,基于“社会—空间”互动逻辑,以社会网络重构为导向,从集中安置模式、公共空间网络优化2个层面,提出新型集中社区有待进一步研究的方向,以期为当前及未来的集中社区规划建设和公共空间整体优化提供科学合理的依据。
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[J]. Tourism Management, 58: 132-141.

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61Presents a Quadratic Assignment Procedure (QAP) application of network analysis.61Region proximity is positively related to attraction network by tourist flows.61Same grade attractions in Xinjiang tend to compete with each other for tourists.
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Examining social capital, organizational learning and knowledge transfer in cultural and creative industries of practice

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With the increasing growth of the tourism market, cultural and creative industries are being flooded with new attractions and cultural routes and are providing significant benefits for social and economic development. This study used a multiple mediation examination process to investigate the relationships between social capital, organizational learning and knowledge transfer. Findings from the archival data of 432 Taiwanese cultural and creative firms indicate that organizational learning (e.g., exploitative learning and explorative learning) is the critical mechanism linking the relationship between social capital and knowledge transfer. More importantly, this study also presents a view of absorptive capability as a moderator and offers evidence that qualities such as capabilities can lead to effective knowledge transfer when cultural and creative firms have a higher level of organizational learning intention. Using single and multiple perspectives of constructs and conduct, our version of the mediation-moderation model is more complex than prior tourism or management studies have shown.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.08.016      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

61Integrates concepts of social capital with community-based ecotourism research.61A reciprocal relationship exists between community members as beneficiaries and the nature of ecotourism.61Economic benefits have a direct impact on residents' pro-environmental behaviors.61Cognitive social capital, rather than structural social capital, has partial-mediation effects.61High levels of social capital encourages residents' pro-environmental behaviors.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.07.007      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

61We viewed eWOM communication on SNSs as a network based on social relationships.61We examined social ties and network structure with social network analysis.61Travel-related eWOM communication relies on strong, middling, or weak social ties.61The communication is structured, loose-knit, flat, and of high centrality.61Travel-related eWOM on SNSs tends to be dominated by travel interests.
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We investigated how business events stimulate processes of knowledge diffusion by conducting a case study of a trade fair. Taking the perspective of temporary clusters, we viewed trade fairs as networks and used social network analysis (SNA) to study their knowledge diffusion network structure. The results show that: (1) knowledge diffusion at trade fairs is flat, coherent, and efficient, but uneven; (2) trade fairs have more advantages in the diffusion of market-strategic knowledge, and leading firms with strong R&D abilities receive greater attention. With a solid theoretical foundation supplied by current research on industrial clusters and SNA, this study explores the dynamic process of knowledge diffusion at business events, providing new ideas with theoretical and practical implications for future research on business events.
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Aspects of interpersonal networks in which Americans discuss "important matters" ate examined using data from the 1985 General Social Survey. These are the first survey network data representative of the American population. The networks are small, kin-centered, relatively dense, and homogeneous in comparison with the sample of respondents. Bivariate examination of subgroup differences by age, education, race/ethnicity, sex, and size of place indicates that network range is greatest among the young, the highly educated, and metropolitan residents. Sex differences consist primarily of differences in kin/nonkin composition of networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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The central role of leadership in rural tourism development: A theoretical framework and case studies

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(8-9): 1277-1297.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1019514      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In the unique environment of rural tourism, leadership is often credited for the initiation and governance of sustainable development, but has received little empirical examination. Rural tourism leaders face many challenges, such as managing factions and enclaves within communities, re-assuring new entrants about risk and vulnerability, securing long-term commitment amongst leaders, establishing continuity from one leader to the next, and coordinating cooperative governance across numerous governmental and non-governmental organizations. This article uses the case study method to provide sketches of three rural tourism leaders who have been successful in their communities. Each leader utilizes a different approach, including Servant, Shared/Community-Based, and Authentic Leadership. The Networks View of social capital is utilized to analyze each case to help discover the sources of success of these three individuals and their communities. While this approach has been previously utilized at thecommunitylevel, this study explores anindividuals' ability toembody social capital. The article concludes with observations that both bridging and bonding social capital are important to the success of these rural tourism leaders, regardless of their leadership approach. Such observations are valuable for rural communities as they struggle with the challenges of cultivating and sustaining effective leadership and governance.
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The purpose of this exploratory study is to examine tourism-related social capital and its relationship with other forms of capital. The concept of social capital has emerged from several disciplines. Social capital has been used extensively among communities exploring a variety of economic development options, including sustainable agriculture and entrepreneurship. As part of a larger project, 307 tourism stakeholders in a four-county region of Virginia are identified and surveyed regarding their (1) perceptions of tourism-related social capital of the area and (2) perceptions of built, financial, natural, cultural, human, and political capital. Using structural equation modeling, analysis of the results shows that there is a relationship between length of residence and tourism-related social capital as well as a relationship between tourism-related social capital and cultural capital, political capital, human capital, private built capital, and financial capital, but no relationship exists between tourism-related social capital and public built capital or natural capital.
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Academic journals, with their rigorous peer-review process, play a central role in the scientification of knowledge. However, researchers and scholars often fail to appreciate and understand the black box of such agents of knowledge production. Using content analysis of articles published in the two most recent volumes of Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, this article attempts to shed some lights on the nature of knowledge in hospitality studies. The results indicated that research is highly concentrated in the developed world, while the voices of developing nations are marginalized. This pattern provides some indication of underlying power dimensions in the production of hospitality knowledge. A social network analysis of contributors indicated that hospitality research is largely the product of collaborative efforts among members of the scientific community. Collaboration among researchers from the same country was the most common form of networking. In terms of research areas, the behaviors of travelers and consumers of hospitality and tourism services were well-studied among scholars.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.02.005      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study aimed to identify the factors influencing social capital as it affects community conflict management for community residents in rural tourism villages. An on-site survey consisting of self-administered questionnaires was conducted with residents of rural tourism communities. These self-administered surveys were obtained from 380 community residents in the study area. A factor-clustering method identified distinct segments: high social capital (52%) and low social capital (47.7%). The estimation of a binary logistic regression model determined the characteristics of community residents who were most likely to be associated with each type of social capital. Results indicated that fruit, vegetable and rice farmers who also operated farm-stay businesses and rural activity programmes for tourists had the most social. We suggest that certain types of government policy programmes are helpful for increasing social capital and managing community conflicts by means of involvement in the tourism business.
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This paper examines the process of tourism destination evolution and transformation. The focus is on how the relationships between organisations can act as a self-organising mechanism for the destination, with fluidity and change being a critical component in this process. This paper uses network theory to express these dynamics, and it emphasises structural features of architectural density and centrality. Most particularly, the network approach illustrates how groupings of small firms within interdependent systems can be self-governing, and show how this process assists the destination in building tacit knowledge for competitive advantage that resides in the network structure. The case context for this illustration is an icon tourism destination in New Zealand, the Waitomo Caves. This tourism destination has undergone significant transformation over the last 15 years, from its single Glowworm Cave attraction to an interdependent network involving underground adventure caving activities. Because of this transformation, it provides a distinctive context to explore these fluid network processes.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.08.004      URL      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

This paper critiques linear models of tourism destination evolution through exploring change as antihierarchical, self organising and locally inspired. Based upon the Deleuzian concept of networks as rhizomic, the longitudinal qualitative case study shows 100 years of evolution and transformation. The data demonstrated that through collaboration, network connections could be made in endless and unpredictable ways that then formed complex bundlings of network-based capabilities (multiplicities). These knowledge repositories emerged through the non-linear, heterogeneous and volume-filling connections inspired by the informal activities of everyday life. The data demonstrated that network transformation is a result of collaborative connection, and confirms Deleuze's imperative that all creative possibilities exist and new novelty is limited only by the absence of positive acts. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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[J]. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 7: 140-152.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.09.008      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

61Social network analysis is a very useful tool for the planning and management of tourist destinations. 61There is a direct increasing relationship between the network characteristics of the stakeholder network for a tourist destination and its level of tourist development. 61This positive relationship is clearer in the fields of planning and development and management, and less so in the fields of marketing/promotion and distribution/vending. 61When the operation of the stakeholder networks improves, there is an increase in the level of tourist development at destination. 61The results constitute a major analytical advance in the application of the relational perspective to tourism knowledge, since the current tendency has gone beyond the study of individual cases to focus on the study of a set of cases.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2010.03.008      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

The structure and the sociology of scientific collaborations are receiving increasing interest, especially in a world characterized by complex problems, dynamic growth of knowledge, and specialized areas of expertise. The primary objective of this study was to explore the patterns of collaborations in tourism research community. To this end, the authors apply social network analysis on co-authorship data obtained from top three tourism journals. The analysis revealed that even though the tourism researcher network is large and complex, it is dispersed in the form of several core groups of researchers who sometimes act as nodes in the network. Further, significant network characteristics, and the sociology behind their significance are presented and discussed.
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Since the 1980s, rural tourism has witnessed a significant and generalised growth among the European Union members. However, from the perspective of business management, rural tourism suffers from several obstacles that complicates its competitiveness as a tourism product. By focusing on the Valle del Jerte (Extremadura, Spain) case study, this study analyses a rural tourism business network, from the social network analysis perspective, to critically discuss its potential as a structure that enhances competitiveness and innovation. The results demonstrate that these networking structures contribute towards the creation of a cohesive destination, whereby the sharing of resources enables innovative local responses to the global market challenges.
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[J]. Tourism Management, 26(2): 277-289.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.013      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper constructs a relational framework using principles of relationship marketing and the networks approach to examine the nature of exchange structure in the three case study areas—Casteton, Bakewell and Tideswell in the Peak District National Park (PDNP)—which are conceptualised as the learning regions. It examines different attitudes of actors towards partnership building and their perception of cross-sector networks. It is argued that sustainable tourism product is ‘territorially embedded’ in ongoing social networks and relationships. The paper illustrates how interactions amongst actors provide a context for learning. It highlights how complex web of relations provide relational capital for different actors to enable greater learning and co-operation in the future. Thus it is guided by an overall aim of investigating the implications of consciously accommodating shared concerns about local environment and collectively selling the destination.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2011.638704      URL      摘要

Understanding the flow and development of knowledge within tourism networks is important to the success and value of the network, especially networks based on a single resource such as an artificial reef. Using the ex-HMAS Brisbane Conservation Park as the context, a network analysis was conducted with stakeholders to address the question: ‘How can network analysis be used to measure the social value of an artificial reef?’ The results of this study identified information flows over time, who was involved and not involved at different stages of development, as well as opportunities for further collaborative relationships.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.08.002      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This study presents a quantitative method for investigating the network characteristics of drive tourism destinations with the help of methodologies derived from the network analysis, which offers numerous techniques and indicators through measuring the links among nodes to demonstrate the structural patterns of connected systems. More precisely, this investigation acquires the structural configuration of each destination within a particular area by measuring the indicators of network analysis, including degree centrality, closeness centrality, betweenness centrality and structural holes. Then, this study empirically tests a sample of drive tourists taken from 16 destinations in Nantou, Taiwan, and suggests the appropriate tourist facilities and services of each particular destination based on the structural characteristics relating to its network position on various touring routes. A number of recommendations are made regarding the location and type of tourist facilities to be offered and promoted based on the results of the network analysis.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/14616680601092857      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Tourism firms operate in a business environment in which innovation is important for firm survival. In spite of this, there is an apparent lack of knowledge concerning innovation processes in tourism firms. This article combines considerations about the geographical characteristics of tourism with social innovation network and agglomeration theories so as to develop a theoretical framework of the social innovation network geography of tourism. The theoretical framework presents arguments for different types of social network geographies and their innovation benefits. An empirical study of tourism firms in destinations in the Province of Malaga, Spain illustrates the theoretical framework. The overall conclusion of the article is that there are several social network geographies of tourism. However, in the empirical study local networks are found to be loose and dense whereas non-local networks are strong and sparse. This social network geography secures access to varied information benefits sustaining innovation. The analysis of social network geographies of tourism does, however, only provide one little piece of the puzzle of understanding innovation in tourism firms.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.01.031      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

61The B2B and C2B structures of Baltimore's attractions network were quantified.61The marginal value of traveler activity paths were estimated.61An attraction's weighted degree centrality is a good predictor of that attraction's marginal impact on total trip spending.
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This paper proposes network analysis of qualitative consumer data as a practical method to identify the sensory capital, inclusive of both dominant and latent brand elements, of a well-known tourist destination in the United States, Orlando. Although the results show that the Orlando brand is primarily represented by Disney, network analysis also reveals several latent brand elements, which could enable projection of the city as a destination inclusive of a multitude of attractions for different consumer needs and preferences. These results may help strategic re-branding of Orlando. The methodology developed in this study may help Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) in identifying a destination's primary and latent brand elements for different stakeholders in order to hone its strategic brand theme.
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The purpose of this paper is to develop a framework that describes the characteristics and the underlying drivers of publically shared electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) for destinations. Tweets about a destination were collected while the destination hosted a hallmark event over a 5-year period (2011 2015). In each year, interactions on Twitter were analysed using macro and meso-level social network analysis to identify the network structure and hubs of eWOM activity. A K means clustering algorithm was then applied to create clusters of nodes with similar characteristics and eWOM content within each cluster was analysed using automated content analysis. The resulting model indicates that destination and event eWOM maintains a macro network structure in which a small number of accounts or hubs influence information sharing. Hub characteristics evolve over time, whereas eWOM content can fluctuate in response to emergent destination activities.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1031672      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

While community-based rural tourism has experienced rapid growth in China in recent years, little is known about the social mechanisms underlying the behaviours of tourism operators regarding common destination interests. Comparing two Chinese rural tourism cases, this study investigates four types of networks among local tourism operators and explores how the network structures in destinations are related to the community citizenship behaviours of tourism operators and other tourism-involved residents. The study also examines the effects of community citizenship behaviours on destination effectiveness in rural tourism development and management. The findings highlight the possibility that network structures among tourism operators could critically influence their community citizenship behaviours, which contribute to destination effectiveness. This study contributes both empirically and methodologically to the field of social network analysis in tourism, within the specific context of rural communities in China.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.04.001      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

We combine network structure and firm-level relationship measures to explore the association between innovative behavior, firm position within the network of a destination, and the knowledge and relational trust characteristics of a firm's innovation-oriented relationships. We find current collaboration, shared knowledge and trust are associated with innovative behavior with partner firms, but that betweenness centrality indicates which partners are the most prominent innovators in a population. That is, relationship-level characteristics facilitate innovation partnerships, but network structure characteristics identify the most successful innovative partners. To theory, our findings contribute to efforts in the tourism, innovation and network literature to evaluate the differential effects of knowledge stocks and flows on innovation. For practice, our results suggest that promoters of innovation within a destination should leverage brokerage positions to improve the in-flow of ideas while encouraging the firms that share knowledge and trust to collaborate to apply those ideas.
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[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4): 1570-1593.

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[J]. Tourism Management, 63: 338-350.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.06.027      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Early-stage tourism destinations often seek external capital to establish, invest and participate in tourism businesses at various levels. Entrepreneurial mobility at these destinations is thus an important phenomenon in need of further exploration both empirically and theoretically. This study uses an early-stage destination in rural China as a case to explore the experiences of inward entrepreneurial migrants in tourism development and associates their mobility, geographical and organisational, with dimensions of social capital, including institutional support, community openness and personal social networks. Primary interview data were collected from inward tourism entrepreneurs, key local community members and government officials related to tourism projects. The findings suggest that the inward entrepreneurs had unrealistic perceptions of the tourism industry before they entered. Entrepreneurial mobility in tourism development is influenced by all three social capital dimensions. The integration with the locality enhances the potential contribution of entrepreneurial mobility to tourism development.

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