塔娜
, 刘志林
TA Na, LIU Zhilin
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版权声明: 2017 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
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作者简介:
作者简介：塔娜(1986-),女,内蒙古包头人,博士,副研究员,主要从事城市社会地理学与行为地理学研究,E-mail: tanapku@gmail.com。
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摘要
为满足当前城市社会发展与城市建设需要,西方女性时空行为研究近年来取得了长足进展,研究主题覆盖行为特征、社会公平、可持续性等方面。中国城市女性在转型期同样面临着重大的挑战,城市空间的性别不平等正在深刻地影响女性的日常行为与生活质量。本文系统梳理了近50年来西方女性时空行为研究成果,介绍了女性通勤行为、非工作活动等传统议题和家庭关系、联合行为、可达性等新问题的研究进展,并总结了女性时空行为研究的理论解释。西方女性时空行为研究早期关注经济转型背景下的女性出行行为,对就业可达性、通勤和非工作活动的性别差异进行了大量研究。近年来,西方研究呈现出多元化趋势,研究重点转向家庭关系、家庭联合行为与时空可达性等新主题,指出女性在日常生活中面临社会排斥与空间不平等。为理解女性时空行为模式的形成机制,学者从经济学、社会学、地理学等角度进行探讨,提出了地租与工资理论、劳动力市场隔离理论、家庭责任假说、女性的自我认知与社会文化、家庭资源分配说、时空固定性制约等解释理论。这些研究为中国城市女性时空行为研究提供了借鉴。针对中国女性面临的城市社会转型的独特背景,其时空行为受制度、家庭和自身的多重制约,提出了中国城市女性时空行为研究的框架和未来研究方向。
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Abstract
Feminist geography has been a very influential geographic research field in recent decades. Since women entered labor force in large numbers since the 1950s, urban development and urban planning were more concerned with the social and travel needs of professional women. Thus, studies on women's space-time behavior have drawn great attention from behavior geographer, transportation geographer, and urban planner. In China, although gender equality is believed to have been established since the 1950s, women began to face more challenges in their daily lives in recent years due to socioeconomic transitions. Gender inequality in many social fields is increasing, leading to more space-time constraints and gendered behavior to women. However, spatial behavior research of women in China is underdeveloped, which hinders an adequate understanding of the complex interactions between women's behavior and space. This article aims to put forward a framework for women's space-time behavior study in China. We first review the progress of women's space-time behavior research in Western countries. In early stage, such research focused on individuals' daily behaviors, such as the gender differences in commuting, non-work activity, and travel pattern, in the context of economic transition. Later more scholars became concerned with the household relationship and social inequality faced by women therefore more research on household structure, joint activity, and accessibility was conducted. Scholars have tried to interpret women's space-time behavior from different theoretical perspectives, including economic, sociological, and geographical points. All these efforts have contributed to establishing theories about women's daily life. Compared to their Western counterparts, Chinese women face some special social context, including more institutional and household constraints due to family planning, danwei transition, high proportion of dual-earner households, and emerging gender inequality. Finally, we propose a framework for women' space-time behavior study. We believe that household relationship, accessibility, joint activity, and differences among women should be studied carefully. We also indicate that theoretical studies on women' behavior should be emphasized in the future.
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基于性别的社会不平等来源于劳动分工、资源可获得性和主体意识等因素对城市社会关系产生的结构性制约(England, 1993; McDowell et al, 2005)。在社会、文化、经济与空间因素的综合制约下,基于性别的社会不平等不仅体现在就业机会与薪酬的差异,而且已经渗入日常生活的方方面面,深刻地影响女性的生活质量。女性时空行为研究关注城市社会转型与空间重构背景下女性面临的时空制约与空间不平等及其引发的社会问题,有利于解释女性与城市空间独特的互动方式,成为城市地理学、交通地理学和文化地理学关注的热点问题(Kwan, 1999; Law, 1999; 柴彦威等, 2003; Hanson, 2010)。
随着中国城市转型的加快,社会不平等与性别差异逐渐凸显。学术界开始重新关注结构性与文化性制约对性别不平等的影响,讨论家庭内部的社会角色对女性日常生活的影响(Stockman, 1994; Parish et al, 2000; 柴彦威等, 2003; Feng et al, 2015)。相比于其他学科更偏重于经济、心理与社会视角,时空行为研究提供了独特的行为视角,更强调从时空制约与空间行为的角度,研究女性与城市空间的互动方式。目前中国城市女性表现出就业可达性差、时空制约紧张、非工作出行复杂等问题,使其面临严峻的时空困境,并直接影响到她们的生活质量。
从城市规划与管理的角度,按照新型城镇化与人本规划的现实要求,城市发展越来越重视生活质量的提升,越来越强调精细化的社会规划。在此背景下,社会公平与空间公正问题应受到更多的重视,以女性、老年人、低收入等为代表的弱势群体的移动性困境与边缘化趋势,需要城市规划更加关注人的性别差异及其制约机制,并进行科学合理调整。目前中国城市规划依旧存在男性主导思维,缺乏对女性群体生活需求的关注(姚华松等, 2017)。因此,对女性时空行为的研究可为以人为本的城市规划提供更好的支持。
1950年代以来,女性开始进入劳动力市场,西方女性时空行为研究从女性的通勤与就业可达性入手,分析女性面临的就业机会的不平等。而1980年代后,面对社会转型的加速,西方女性时空行为研究进入了关注女性非工作活动、家内分工、时空可达性等日常行为研究的多元期,取得了大量的研究成果。相比之下,中国城市女性时空行为研究依旧处于起步阶段,难以解释转型期出现的城市空间的性别不平等现象。
本文将从西方城市女性时空行为研究的最新进展出发,介绍女性时空行为研究的传统和最新研究议题,并对女性时空行为研究的理论解释进行综述。在此基础上,结合中国城市女性时空行为研究的现状和中国城市社会的独特性,提出中国城市女性时空行为的研究框架。
二战后,提高女性的就业率成为西方发达国家解决社会排斥、老龄化、财政困难等宏观社会经济问题的重要手段(Hanson, 2010)。越来越多的女性开始从事全职或兼职工作,改变了原有的社会经济格局;特别是大量年轻母亲进入劳动力市场后,需要平衡和协调家庭责任与工作的双重压力(England, 1993)。面对经济重构带来的女性就业率上升,大量研究关注于女性的通勤行为。
这一时期,通勤行为的性别差异成为研究的核心。学者把女性就业和通勤行为作为经济重构带来的性别不平等的表现。大量实证研究表明,女性通勤距离和时间较短(Hanson et al, 1985; Schwanen et al, 2002; Crane, 2007; Frändberg et al, 2011; McQuaid et al, 2012)。一般认为,高地位、高工资的职业会带来长距离通勤,而相对于男性,女性往往从事低工资低职级的粉领工作,因而其通勤距离更短(Hanson et al, 1991);而即使在同样的职业中,女性也往往表现出近距离通勤的特征(Fagnani, 1987; Hanson et al, 1988; Fernandez et al, 2004)。兼职女性的通勤距离往往更短(Kwan, 1999; McQuaid et al, 2012)。但是也有一些研究得出了不同的结论。例如受职业、种族和交通方式的影响,西班牙裔和非洲裔美国人没有显著的通勤性别差异(McLafferty et al, 1991);公交出行的居民不存在通勤性别差异(Crane, 2007)。
随着女性越来越多地融入社会生活中,学者开始意识到对女性通勤行为的研究不足以全面反映性别不平等。非工作活动作为性别劳动分工的重要组成部分,反映了家庭责任的性别差异(Kwan, 2000),因而需要从非工作活动与出行角度对女性日常生活进行深入探讨。
交通出行研究方面,通过比较男性和女性在出行距离、方式和目的上的差异,发现女性承担更多的非工作活动,且更容易陷入与之相关的日常生活困境。学者发现,女性出行距离和时间更短(Kitamura et al, 1986; Schwanen et al, 2003; Rosenbloom, 2006; Frändberg et al, 2011),从事更多的家务活动和更少的娱乐活动(Hanson et al, 1980; Apps, 2005; Rosenbloom, 2006; Silm et al, 2013)。而且学者发现从交通方式选择上,女性在日常生活中,出行的机动化程度低,更少开车出行(Polk, 2004; Vance et al, 2008; Scheiner et al, 2012);开车出行距离短并更愿意使用公共交通(Rosenbloom, 2006; Vance et al, 2008);开车时往往和孩子同行(McGuckin et al, 2005)。
早期研究主要强调女性的出行和移动性需求,特别是经济重构和空间转型带来的性别化活动需求与出行模式。而到2000年左右,学术界更加关注女性在日常生活中的时空制约和可达性,女性时空行为研究开始出现一些新的特征,以家庭关系、联合行为以及可达性为代表的研究越来越受到重视。
随着社会转型的深入,西方城市家庭作为社会的基本组成单元在过去的几十年也发生了明显变化,家庭规模缩小、生育率降低和家庭结构的多元化彻底改变了社会结构与城市空间的相互作用方式(Buzar et al, 2005)。是否结婚、是否有小孩、是否是女性户主的家庭、是否与老年人合住等这些家庭生命周期因素以及家庭中的个体角色对于女性日常生活产生了极为重要的影响。
早期研究更加关注婚姻状况和孩子对于女性时空行为的影响。例如Turner等(1997)发现婚姻状况和孩子的数量对女性通勤时间有显著的负向影响;McQuaid等(2012)指出,当家里有小孩时,男性通勤时间变长而女性通勤时间变短。随着家庭结构的多元化,在家庭责任的分工中,家庭的其他成员,如祖父母、小时工、其他亲友,都有可能参与家庭责任的分配、组织和协调(Golob et al, 1997; Wang et al, 2009)。一般认为,扩展家庭是实现性别平等和平衡家庭分工的重要方式(Logan et al, 1999; Chen, 2005)。(外)祖父母往往是家务活动和儿童照料的主要承担者,给年轻母亲更多的机会和时间参与工作(Wheelock et al, 2002; Goh, 2009)。特别是身体健康、年级较轻的老年人能从事较多的维持性活动,显著地减少年轻女性家长的家务活动时间(Hjorthol et al, 2010)。在南京的研究发现,相比于核心家庭的男女家长,扩展家庭的年轻男女家长有更多的时间用于寻找城市中心更好的工作机会(Feng et al, 2013)。研究还发现,通过寻求其他家庭成员的帮助,女家长能够显著地减少自身受到的时空制约,可从事更多的就业和休闲活动(Ta et al, 2016)。
近年来,家庭内部相互作用与联合行为对女性日常生活的影响研究开始受到关注并迅速发展。家庭活动决策过程可理解为家庭在充分考虑资源制约和活动需求的条件下,分配不同的家庭成员进行活动和出行以满足家庭需求的选择决策。
一些研究通过比较男女家长之间的活动—移动相互作用(Golob et al, 1997; Cao et al, 2008),分析男女家长在活动与出行之间的相互替代、补充和陪伴效应,试图通过家庭内部的分析验证家庭责任、时间预算等假设。这类研究主要运用复杂多变量统计模型,分析活动—移动行为之间及成员行为之间的相互联系,发现在决策中女性更多的承担家务和照顾孩子(Golob et al, 1997; 张文佳等, 2008; Ettema et al, 2009)。
家庭成员的联合行为意味着他们需要在时空间中协调各自的活动日程安排,根据家庭需要、可利用资源、个人偏好共同决定任务分配与时间分配(Zhang et al, 2006)。该项研究致力于从出行调查或活动日志调查数据中识别联合活动—移动行为,并分析家庭生命周期、孩子、职业等因素对家庭男女家长联合行为决策的影响(Gliebe et al, 2005; Ettema et al, 2007)。特别是,部分学者使用GIS技术进行地理可视化和地理计算,以识别和可视化家庭的联合行为模式,将活动束的概念应用于联合行为的研究(Kang et al, 2008, 2010)。将家庭联合行为决策看作是一个集体决策过程,分析家庭在进行不同行为决策时的优先级,提出女性在决策权上具有劣势(Zhang et al, 2006)。
2000年以后,伴随着GIS技术对于时空行为模式的处理能力越来越强,整日行为模式开始受到关注。时间地理学者认为,原有的关注通勤、非工作活动等实际行为结果的研究,不能深入地分析特定物理、制度、文化背景提供给双职工家庭用于平衡就业和照料责任的机会和选择集(Schwanen, de Jong et al, 2008),为此需要进行城市机会的时空可达性分析。
基于时空棱柱和潜在活动空间的概念,研究者致力于探索日常生活中个体的可达范围,表明女性对于城市机会的可达性更差(Dijst, 1999; Kwan, 1999, 2000; Srinivasan, 2008)。例如,Kwan(1999)使用美国俄亥俄州哥伦布市居民出行日志调查,分析了全职女性和男性在时空可达性上的差异,借此分析社会不平等在城市机会可达性的表现,发现受到非工作活动时空固定性制约的影响,全职女性的活动空间明显小于全职男性。Schwanen, de Jong(2008)在原有基于定量GIS的时空可达性分析的基础上,考虑交通堵塞、个体时间预算、时空弹性以及个体的情感和感觉因素,提出了叙事时空可达性(narrative space-time accessibility),并用于分析荷兰女性如何平衡工作和家务双重压力。
女性时空行为及其所代表的社会与经济不平等现象引起了学术界的广泛关注。为进一步检验这一问题形成的机制,研究者就收入、家庭责任、交通可达性和劳动力市场空间隔离等要素对女性时空行为的影响进行了深入分析。早期的研究以经济学视角为主,更加关注城市经济因素与劳动力市场因素对通勤行为的影响,认为房价、工资、就业市场歧视等经济因素主导了通勤行为的差异;而后期则更加强调社会学视角,关注家庭内部分工、女性自我认知以及地理学视角的时空制约等问题的研究。
从经济学视角,学者认为,通勤长度是工资、房价、收入和其他人口统计学变量的函数(Turner et al, 1997)。试图通过基于住房价格和工资水平的局部均衡模型解释双职工家庭在不同城市发展阶段下通勤行为的性别差异(Madden, 1981; Singell et al, 1986),认为通勤距离的性别差异主要源于女性相对较低的工资水平和工作时间与通勤时间的效用比值较低。而年轻群体的通勤行为趋同来自工资率的平等化趋势(Crane, 2007)。但是,也有研究表明,通勤行为的性别差异并不完全像经济学理论所预测的那样(Brook-Gross et al, 1985),性别差异实际上与职业属性和家庭责任密切相关,学者们主要从这两方面进行了深入探讨(Hanson et al, 1985; Johnston-Anumonwo, 1992)。
劳动力市场隔离理论认为,女性从事较多的行业往往比男性主导的行业在城市当中更为分散,使得女性更容易在家附近找到合适的工作。学者将职业分为女性主导的、男性主导的和中性的职业进行比较。例如,Hanson等(1985)通过比较女性主导的行政支持部门和男性主导的制造业部门,发现女性从事的工作实际上更加散布于城市中;Weinberger(2007)对美国费城大都市区1990年和2005年的PUMA数据分析发现,女性主导的产业在城市中更加散布,虽然趋势有所下降,但女性确实比男性更有可能实现职住平衡。但是,也有研究提出了相反的结论。例如Sang等(2010)用罗切斯特市大都市规划管理区2000年的CTPP数据发现,除管理和交通运输业外,其他职业女性的通勤距离都大于男性。
家庭责任假说是指就业的女性相比男性会有更多的家庭和儿童照料责任,导致她们面临更大的时间制约,因而会倾向于选择较短通勤的职业(Johnston-Anumonwo, 1992)。女性的家庭责任并没有因为她们的就业状况而减少,相反由于时间制约,将她们的就业束缚在家附近(McLafferty et al, 1991; Johnston-Anumonwo, 1992)。
通过比较不同类型家庭男性和女性的通勤行为,学者提出,对于女性来说,家庭责任越大,通勤距离和时间越短,因此双职工有小孩家庭的女性通勤距离最短(Singell et al, 1986; Fagnani, 1987; England, 1993; Turner et al, 1997)。这些研究都在一定程度上验证了家庭责任假说的存在,认为家庭责任确实对女性的就业地选择和通勤长度产生了制约。但是也有一些研究结论与此相反。一些研究认为已婚女性比未婚女性的通勤更长(Brooker-Gross et al, 1985),孩子的出现不会影响女性的工作出行(Hanson et al, 1985),甚至有研究提出有孩子会通过增加经济负担等方式使女性增加通勤时间(Weinberger, 2007)。
女性主义的视角强调女性自我认知与社会文化环境对于性别角色施加的制约。他们认为资本主义制度和家长制的双重压迫影响了社会性别模式、资源可获得性以及社会规范,通过就业、家庭照料的社会文化氛围规范家庭对于性别分工、行为模式的决策(McDowell et al, 2005)。日常行为的性别差异和家庭内部相互作用来源于传统文化和社会控制导致的权力关系。例如,研究发现,相比于女性,承担养家责任更有可能增加男性开车的可能性。说明既定的权力关系会显著影响行为模式(Scheiner et al, 2012)。同时,社会心理学家也强调女性自身的态度和意识的影响,而女性对于这种权力关系的性别意识影响了她们的自我定位,并表现为是否能在家务和工作之间寻找到更好的平衡(Polk, 2004; Ettema et al, 2009)。例如,Ettema等(2009)发现,持有传统性别角色预期的女性工作时间更短,而持有平等家庭分工意识的女性工作时间更长而家务时间更短。
地理学家强调城市设施的分布和这些设施的交通可达性对于女性出行的影响(van Ham et al, 2005; McDowell et al, 2006),将地理移动性作为决定女性能否参与就业市场以及进行通勤的重要因素。学者从男性和女性在收入、职业上的经济权力差异视角出发,认为女性在家庭的资源分配中处于不利地位,因此在家庭的时间、汽车等资源的分配中,往往使用权会倾向于男性(Hanson et al, 1980; Fagnani, 1987; Scheiner et al, 2012)。因此,相比于男性,女性往往受制于不利的交通条件,她们更少地拥有驾照、驾驶汽车,更多地乘坐交通出行,而公共交通又往往限制了女性的空间可达性。
城市社会资源分布不平衡,加之弱势群体本身更容易受到空间、时间和机动性的制约,导致弱势群体更容易经历社会排斥。时间地理学关注日常活动的制约,提出一些活动在时间和空间上是相对固定的,居民个体的活动选择和日常活动模式受到这些固定性活动的制约,并进而限制其他活动的组织方式(Cullen, 1972)。而这种固定性制约对于女性来说更为重要,由于工作和家务活动的双重制约,女性的日程安排更加没有弹性,而且难以根据她们自己的意愿进行调整(Kwan, 2000)。基于对就业和家庭责任导致的时空固定性制约的关注,学者发现女性比男性经历了更多的固定性制约和时间预算制约(Kwan, 2000; Schwanen, Kwan et al, 2008; Ta et al, 2016)。例如,Schwanen等的研究发现,根据自我评价的制约,男性平均每天经历的空间固定性强的活动是6.81个而女性是7.62个,男性经历的时间固定性强的活动是5.85个而女性是6.25个(Schwanen, Kwan et al, 2008)。由于时空固定性制约的存在,在活动和个体水平产生了显著的性别差异。
西方城市女性时空行为研究已经经历40多年的历程,研究主题逐渐从单一关注经济转型背景下的出行行为发展到对时空行为模式、家庭联合行为与时空可达性的深入分析,多元化趋势明显。研究视角逐渐从传统的性别差异研究深入探讨女性内部差异,对女性群体的认识不断加深,并结合就业状况、个人收入、家庭结构等多维度深入剖析女性面临的时空制约。研究方法更加精细化,已有研究从性别差异的角度对于日常行为的不同方面进行统计描述和3D可视化,基于计量模型对于行为性别差异的影响因素进行深入分析,并从经济学、社会学、地理学等不同角度进行解释,为深刻理解性别对于个体行为的塑造提供了依据。同时,其研究从早期关注经济转型带来的职住空间与通勤不平等逐渐扩大到社会与空间转型背景下女性在日常生活中面临的空间不平等与移动性困境,对于理解性别差异带来的社会不平等问题提供了重要的理论与实证支持。这些都为中国城市女性时空行为研究提供了借鉴。但也应当看到,现有研究往往基于西方社会文化背景,没有充分考虑中国城市社会转型期社会、空间与经济格局对女性影响的特殊性,需要结合中国实际提出适合中国城市女性时空行为的研究框架。
自1990年代女性主义地理学和时间地理学被引入中国城市研究领域以来,对时空行为从性别的角度进行了一些探索。已有研究主要集中在女性的通勤、购物、娱乐及其性别差异比较等方面 (柴彦威等, 2003; 黄春晓等, 2007; Cao et al, 2008; 张萌等, 2008; 郑泽爽等, 2010; 孟斌等, 2011; 王晓瑜等, 2012; 柴彦威等, 2014),并引入家庭责任、劳动分工、社会网络等概念解释时空行为的性别差异(张文佳等, 2008; Feng et al, 2015; Ta et al, 2016)。性别已经逐渐成为理解个体行为差异的重要变量。但是,由于理论、数据和方法的限制,目前研究依旧不足。
但是,与西方城市不同,中国城市社会在女性日常生活方面具有独特性。首先,中国城市的社会差异正在扩大,导致女性内部的差异也在不断拉大(柴彦威等, 2003; 黄春晓等, 2009)。一方面,女性属于社会弱势群体,在社会变化中更有可能受到负面影响,下岗女工、低收入女性、单亲妈妈等面临着被边缘化和贫困化的危险;另一方面,相比男性,女性更容易受到家庭、社会关系、工作等因素影响,导致女性内部的差异不断强化。
其次,中国城市双职工比例远远大于西方城市,双职工家庭是城市社会的主流。双职工家庭女性比单职工家庭具有更大的决策权,男女双方在住房区位选择、家庭资源分配上的话语权更为平等,通勤距离、劳动分工、出行行为等多表现为双方协商权衡的结果。因此,家庭内部协商决策与联合行为对于中国城市来说更为重要。
第三,中国城市逐渐从性别平均主义走向性别不平等。在计划经济时期,由于国家层面的政策支持和单位的制度与空间配置,中国城市性别平等达到了前所未有的程度(Zuo et al, 2001)。但是,改革开放以后,随着单位制度的解体和市场经济的建立,中国城市性别差异逐渐扩大,并体现在就业、收入、家庭分工等社会生活的方方面面。与西方从不平等到平等的路径不同,中国逐渐从一个性别平均主义的社会逐渐开始面对性别不平等带来的女性劣势与生活困境。
第四,计划生育政策已经并依旧在影响着城市女性的日常生活。从中国城市确立了一个孩子为主的计划生育政策以来,中国家庭结构逐渐形成了“4-2-1”的态势,导致中国家庭往往以孩子为中心,形成自老及幼的抚养模式,老年人帮助年轻家长照料家庭和小孩;而反过来年轻家长又要反哺老年群体,形成了年轻家长巨大的生活压力,导致女性受到更多的家庭制约(Chen, 2005)。而随着计划生育政策逐步放松一孩政策的限制,家庭孩子的数量上升,但是这一双向抚养模式并未出现大的改变,使得家庭关系对女性日常生活的影响进一步增强。
最后,单位体制下“单位办社会”的理念所提供的福利和设施,例如育儿室、幼儿园等设施,为女性全身心地参与工作提供了保障。作为单位成员福利的一部分,这些设施往往具有时间灵活、收费便宜等特点(Stockman, 1994; Parish et al, 2000),对年轻已婚职业女性提供了很大的帮助。而单位制解体后,幼儿园等儿童照料设施回归于市场化,在时间和空间配置上为女性形成了较强的制约。同时,目前中国城市的社会福利政策尚存在不足,托幼班、社区养老等社会抚养机构建设不足。女性不得不得通过压缩自我时间、寻求扩展家庭的帮助、雇佣小时工、选择成为全职太太、通过ICT寻求朋友的暂时帮助等方式完成家庭责任,使得女性的日常生活极大地受到家庭策略的影响。
在上述背景下,中国城市女性的日常生活研究更加复杂,也更具有社会意义。而目前对于城市女性时空行为的研究尚不足,难以支持城市规划与公共政策的需要。因此,未来的中国城市女性时空行为研究需特别关注制度制约背景下家庭关系与家庭策略对女性时空行为的影响。在研究主题方面,不仅需要对传统的女性行为模式与性别差异作进一步的实证分析,更需开拓新的研究议题。面对中国城市女性时空行为的独特背景,需从家庭内部分工和家庭联合行为的角度仔细研究女性时空行为的互动机制,理解家庭结构转变对女性时空行为的影响;同时需要加强对社会排斥与可达性的研究,理解女性作为弱势群体受到的时空制约与社会排斥,并通过对于女性群体内部的分析,理解城市转型对女性日常生活的影响。在影响因素方面,面对市场经济与制度转型的现实背景,从家庭策略、社会政策、建成环境三方面全面理解计划生育政策、城市设施与服务配套不足、家庭自我调整与内部协调对女性时空行为可能造成的影响,深刻理解中国城市女性时空行为的独特性与普遍性。通过这些研究,最终希望能建立中国城市女性时空行为的理论框架,作为中国城市时空行为研究的理论体系(图1)。
图1 中国城市女性时空行为研究框架
Fig.1 Framework for urban women's space-time behavior study in China
西方城市女性的时空行为研究经历了通勤行为的性别差异、女性非工作活动研究、家庭关系与家庭分工、社会排斥与可达性的研究路径,在理论与实践走向成熟。而中国在这方面的研究虽开展了10多年,但在研究主题和理论构建上依旧处于起步阶段。城市女性时空行为研究对理解中国城市转型过程中的社会分异与空间重构、推进以人为本的城市规划与公共政策具有重要的意义。尽管中国城市女性与男性在时空行为上的差异小于西方国家,但是在新的时代背景下这一差异正在扩大,并对女性的日常生活产生了重要的影响。因此,在可以预见的未来,女性居民时空行为的独特性和复杂性将进一步显化,并对中国城市空间产生影响。因此,本文提出需对女性时空行为进行全面系统地刻画,深入分析其影响因素与机制。尤其要通过实证与理论研究,逐步构建中国城市女性时空行为研究的解释理论体系,充分理解女性日常生活需求,提高女性居民生活质量,推进社会公平。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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在以人为本、重视差异性等后现代思潮的大背景下,基于女性主义视角的西方城市女性居民行为空间的研究有了长足的发展。中国城市中的女性群体,作为城市社会中的一个重要亚群体单元,在改革开放后经历着重大变化的同时也面临着新的挑战,对中国城市女性居民行为空间的女性主义研究已悄然 收稿日期:2002—03—25;修订日期:2002—05—25基金项目:国家自然科学基金(40171034)作者简介:柴彦威(1964—),男,甘肃省会宁县人,副教授,日本广岛大学文学博士,研究方向为城市社会地理学与行为地理学。起步,今后的研究视角不仅要关注女性自身的特点及其与男性的对比,而且更要重视女性内部的差异性以及城市内部和城
Feminist geographical research on the behavior spaces of female residents in Chinese cities [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2398.2003.04.001 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
在以人为本、重视差异性等后现代思潮的大背景下,基于女性主义视角的西方城市女性居民行为空间的研究有了长足的发展。中国城市中的女性群体,作为城市社会中的一个重要亚群体单元,在改革开放后经历着重大变化的同时也面临着新的挑战,对中国城市女性居民行为空间的女性主义研究已悄然 收稿日期:2002—03—25;修订日期:2002—05—25基金项目:国家自然科学基金(40171034)作者简介:柴彦威(1964—),男,甘肃省会宁县人,副教授,日本广岛大学文学博士,研究方向为城市社会地理学与行为地理学。起步,今后的研究视角不仅要关注女性自身的特点及其与男性的对比,而且更要重视女性内部的差异性以及城市内部和城
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<p>伴随城市空间向郊区急剧扩张，郊区已成为快速城市化过程中疏解城市人口和功能的重要空间。作为兼顾工作与家庭的双重工作者，郊区女性居民的日常生活面临着新的挑战。基于2012 年北京居民日常活动与交通出行调查的第一手资料，采用时间地理学研究框架，以一周的活动日志数据为基础，从时间节奏和时间分配的角度分析郊区女性的时间利用特征，并通过标准置信椭圆对GPS轨迹数据进行了活动空间刻画，探讨不同活动在城市不同空间中的发生日间差异。结果表明，在时间上，郊区女性的日常生活具有规律性、丰富性和细碎性的特点；工作日的时间分配以工作活动为中心，从周一到周四的差异性不显著；休息日的时间分配以家务和休闲活动为主，并且在休息日内部出现周日出行时间相对较少的差异。在空间上，大部分郊区女性居民选择在郊区附近就业，日常生活中的购物、休闲活动也主要在郊区空间发生；在休息日，购物活动向城区空间内延伸，休闲活动的空间范围虽然相比于工作日有所扩大但仍主要在郊区空间内部完成。</p>
The spatio-temporal activity pattern of the suburban female residents in Beijing, China [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2013040013 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<p>伴随城市空间向郊区急剧扩张，郊区已成为快速城市化过程中疏解城市人口和功能的重要空间。作为兼顾工作与家庭的双重工作者，郊区女性居民的日常生活面临着新的挑战。基于2012 年北京居民日常活动与交通出行调查的第一手资料，采用时间地理学研究框架，以一周的活动日志数据为基础，从时间节奏和时间分配的角度分析郊区女性的时间利用特征，并通过标准置信椭圆对GPS轨迹数据进行了活动空间刻画，探讨不同活动在城市不同空间中的发生日间差异。结果表明，在时间上，郊区女性的日常生活具有规律性、丰富性和细碎性的特点；工作日的时间分配以工作活动为中心，从周一到周四的差异性不显著；休息日的时间分配以家务和休闲活动为主，并且在休息日内部出现周日出行时间相对较少的差异。在空间上，大部分郊区女性居民选择在郊区附近就业，日常生活中的购物、休闲活动也主要在郊区空间发生；在休息日，购物活动向城区空间内延伸，休闲活动的空间范围虽然相比于工作日有所扩大但仍主要在郊区空间内部完成。</p>
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随着生活方式的改变,女性的日常休闲生活对城市空间演化正在产生深刻影响。但目前,地理学界 对女性休闲的研究很少,城市规划和建设往往也缺乏性别差异的考虑,对两性社会地位的平等发展带来障碍。文章通过在南京市湖南路对市民的问卷调查,分析了女 性的休闲时间、场所、方式、出行、消费等方面的特征,并对两性的休闲行为差异进行了对比,认为女性的日常休闲活动对城市公共空间的影响正在超过男性,但其 休闲生活质量低于男性,仍处于较低的发展水平。
Research on women's daily leisure behaviors: A case study in Nanjing [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-8462.2007.05.020 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
随着生活方式的改变,女性的日常休闲生活对城市空间演化正在产生深刻影响。但目前,地理学界 对女性休闲的研究很少,城市规划和建设往往也缺乏性别差异的考虑,对两性社会地位的平等发展带来障碍。文章通过在南京市湖南路对市民的问卷调查,分析了女 性的休闲时间、场所、方式、出行、消费等方面的特征,并对两性的休闲行为差异进行了对比,认为女性的日常休闲活动对城市公共空间的影响正在超过男性,但其 休闲生活质量低于男性,仍处于较低的发展水平。
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北京城市居民通勤时间变化及影响因素 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2011.10.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
以2005年和2010 年两次问卷调查数据为基础，采用统计分析和地理信息系统技术对北京市区居民通勤时间变化进行了细致分析。研究结果显示，北京市区居民的通勤时间从2005年38 分钟增加到2010 年的43.6 分钟， 通勤时间增长显著。通过比较城八区居民的平均通勤时间，发现内城居民的通勤状况有所改善，而城近郊区居民通勤状况则不乐观，通勤时间的变化存在明显的空间差异；而将社会经济属性不同的人群的通勤时间进行比较， 也发现通勤时间变化和年龄、学历等因素关系更为密切。对通勤时间变化的影响因素研究表明，地铁建设等交通发展因素以及居民通勤方式的变化对居民通勤时间大幅增加影响显著，同时通过对典型就业集中区域和居住功能为主区域进行比较，发现城市规划中对不同区域功能定位也对居民的通勤时间变化产生显著影响。
Commuting time change and its influencing factors in Beijing [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2011.10.003 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
以2005年和2010 年两次问卷调查数据为基础，采用统计分析和地理信息系统技术对北京市区居民通勤时间变化进行了细致分析。研究结果显示，北京市区居民的通勤时间从2005年38 分钟增加到2010 年的43.6 分钟， 通勤时间增长显著。通过比较城八区居民的平均通勤时间，发现内城居民的通勤状况有所改善，而城近郊区居民通勤状况则不乐观，通勤时间的变化存在明显的空间差异；而将社会经济属性不同的人群的通勤时间进行比较， 也发现通勤时间变化和年龄、学历等因素关系更为密切。对通勤时间变化的影响因素研究表明，地铁建设等交通发展因素以及居民通勤方式的变化对居民通勤时间大幅增加影响显著，同时通过对典型就业集中区域和居住功能为主区域进行比较，发现城市规划中对不同区域功能定位也对居民的通勤时间变化产生显著影响。
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| [6] |
转型期职业女性转职的过程特征 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.02.008 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
在城市化快速发展的过程中,职住关系研究已经成为学术研究的热点问题之一,职住所带来的空间结构是居住与就业选择后的结果。全面揭示居住与就业选择过程显得尤为重要。从20 世纪90 年代以来,中国开始正式进入转型期,中国就业市场环境发生了深刻变化,居民择业的自主性增加,就业行为日益复杂化,就业行为成为学术界关注的热点。已有研究主要通过与男性比较,探讨女性就业率、就业结构、职业流动等特征,以及特定类型女性在转型期的就业行为特征。这些研究忽视了不同女性在就业市场的转职特征的复杂性。本文基于职业女性的深度访谈,分析发现不同类型职业女性就业历程表现出稳定—波动、波动—稳定、稳定、波动转职过程特征;职业女性因自身属性的不同对就业市场转型的响应存在差异性。
The characteristics of the professional women job transfer in the transformation period [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2012.02.008 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
在城市化快速发展的过程中,职住关系研究已经成为学术研究的热点问题之一,职住所带来的空间结构是居住与就业选择后的结果。全面揭示居住与就业选择过程显得尤为重要。从20 世纪90 年代以来,中国开始正式进入转型期,中国就业市场环境发生了深刻变化,居民择业的自主性增加,就业行为日益复杂化,就业行为成为学术界关注的热点。已有研究主要通过与男性比较,探讨女性就业率、就业结构、职业流动等特征,以及特定类型女性在转型期的就业行为特征。这些研究忽视了不同女性在就业市场的转职特征的复杂性。本文基于职业女性的深度访谈,分析发现不同类型职业女性就业历程表现出稳定—波动、波动—稳定、稳定、波动转职过程特征;职业女性因自身属性的不同对就业市场转型的响应存在差异性。
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| [7] |
北京市女性出行行为研究 [J].Travel behavior analysis of the females in Beijing [J]. |
| [8] |
基于家庭的城市居民出行需求理论与验证模型 [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2008.12.002 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
西方的城市居民出行需求研究已经由基于出行的分析转向基于活动的分析,而国内的相关研究几乎空白,特别是基于家庭的分析.基于出行的交通需求理论在交通规划中的不足,强调活动分析法的理论基础和应用优势,提出了基于家庭的活动一移动行为的理论并进行模型验证.采用天津市居民时间利用日志调查的第一手数据,以家庭为研究单元,建立结构方程模型,在解读天津市民丁作日的活动-移动模式的基础上.验证了基于家庭的活动分析法的理论.结果表明,出行来源于相应的活动参与,且活动分析法很好地解决了四阶段法等基于出行的模型的一些不足.男女家长之间存在明显的活动-移动联系.并且在非工作活动上存在联合参与行为.在考虑活动和家庭成员的间接效应时,社会经济属性对居民出行时间的的总体效应和直接效应显著程度不一,验证了基于家庭的活动分析法在出行行为研究上比传统基于出行的分析更加全面和深入.
Theories and confirmed model of urban resident's travel demand: Considering intra-household interaction [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2008.12.002 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
西方的城市居民出行需求研究已经由基于出行的分析转向基于活动的分析,而国内的相关研究几乎空白,特别是基于家庭的分析.基于出行的交通需求理论在交通规划中的不足,强调活动分析法的理论基础和应用优势,提出了基于家庭的活动一移动行为的理论并进行模型验证.采用天津市居民时间利用日志调查的第一手数据,以家庭为研究单元,建立结构方程模型,在解读天津市民丁作日的活动-移动模式的基础上.验证了基于家庭的活动分析法的理论.结果表明,出行来源于相应的活动参与,且活动分析法很好地解决了四阶段法等基于出行的模型的一些不足.男女家长之间存在明显的活动-移动联系.并且在非工作活动上存在联合参与行为.在考虑活动和家庭成员的间接效应时,社会经济属性对居民出行时间的的总体效应和直接效应显著程度不一,验证了基于家庭的活动分析法在出行行为研究上比传统基于出行的分析更加全面和深入.
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| [9] |
银川城市生活需求的性别差异及规划建议: 基于女性主义视角的研究 [J].
本文在引入西方女性主义地理学以及城市居民行为空间和生活需求研究的基础上,以银川市为案例,实地调研和问卷调查分析了当今城市社区生活需求的性别差异,对中国两性居民在城市中的生存状态及其对满足生活需求的基础设施的评价,总结居民生活需求的性别差异特征。文章充实了国内关于生活需求性别研究的实证研究,指出性别差异在城市社区规划和建设中被忽视和女性通常处于弱势地位的现实,提出今后城市建设需重视公共交通和步行交通的规划,强调公共设施的人性化和多元化,加大社区服务力度,提高女性居民的社区参与度。
The gender differences of demands for city life and suggestions on urban planning of Yinchuan City: From the perspective of feminist [J].
本文在引入西方女性主义地理学以及城市居民行为空间和生活需求研究的基础上,以银川市为案例,实地调研和问卷调查分析了当今城市社区生活需求的性别差异,对中国两性居民在城市中的生存状态及其对满足生活需求的基础设施的评价,总结居民生活需求的性别差异特征。文章充实了国内关于生活需求性别研究的实证研究,指出性别差异在城市社区规划和建设中被忽视和女性通常处于弱势地位的现实,提出今后城市建设需重视公共交通和步行交通的规划,强调公共设施的人性化和多元化,加大社区服务力度,提高女性居民的社区参与度。
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| [10] |
Gender, time use, and public policy over the life cycle [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/gri025 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In this paper we compare gender differences in the allocation of time to market work, domestic work, child care, and leisure over the life cycle. Time-use profiles for these activity categories are constructed on survey data for three countries: Australia, the UK, and Germany. We discuss the extent to which gender differences and life-cycle variation in time use can be explained by public policy, focusing on the tax treatment of the female partner and on access to high-quality, affordable child care. Profiles of time use, earnings, and taxes are compared over the life cycle defined on age as well as on phases that represent the key transitions in the life cycle of a typical household. Our contention is that, given the decision to have children, life-cycle time use and consumption decisions of households are determined by them and by public policy. Before children arrive, the adult members of the household have high labour supplies and plenty of leisure. The presence of pre-school children, in combination with the tax treatment of the second earner's income and the cost of bought-in child care, dramatically change the pattern of time use, leading to large falls in female labour supply. We also highlight the fact that, in the three countries we study, female labour supply exhibits a very high degree of heterogeneity after the arrival of children, and we show that this has important implications for public policy.
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| [11] |
Commuting distance and gender among nonmetropolitan university employees [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1985.00303.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The applicability of metropolitan-derived explanations of gender differences in worktrip lengths is examined based on a sample of 435 university employees in the nonmetropolitan town of Blacksburg, VA. Women's worktrips are found to be longer than men's in contrast to metropolitan findings. This pattern results from the interaction of spatial structures of housing and employment with women's lower incomes, gender segregation of employment, and the tendency for married women to find jobs after their residence is established. Upward trends in female labor force participation rates and in nonmetropolitan growth require continued analysis of their joint impact on women's spatial behavior.
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| [12] |
Households matter: The quiet demography of urban transformation [J].https://doi.org/10.1191/0309132505ph558oa URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
During the last three decades, the household has become the focus of a wide range of socio-demographic processes, including the destabilization of traditional p
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| [13] |
Gender role-based differences in time allocation: Case study of Shenzhen, China [J].https://doi.org/10.3141/2014-08 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
ABSTRACT Previous studies on daily time allocation have shed light on individuals' trade-offs regarding time allocation within a fixed time budget. However, the interpersonal interactions of time allocation with a social network are far from understood, largely because of limited research in this area. Furthermore, few studies have focused on the residents of China, whose population is the largest in the world and whose culture is different from that of Western countries. Structural equation models are applied to data collected from 261 households in Shenzhen, China, to investigate the time allocation of male and female household heads on weekdays and weekend days. The results clearly show the household activity roles of Chinese residents: men dominate out-of-home activities, but women dominate in-home activities. Some insightful interpersonal interactions of activity participation between household heads also is offered.
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| [14] |
Residential patterns of parents and their married children in contemporary China: A life course approach [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-004-6371-9 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper examines the residential pattern of parents and their married children in contemporary China. Using the China Health and Nutrition Survey (1991, 1993, 1997), the analysis shows that the res
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| [15] |
Is there a quiet revolution in women's travel? Revisiting the gender gap in commuting [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/01944360708977979 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Gender is both an archetypal and adaptive dimension of the urban condition and, thus, remains a key moving target for planning practitioners and scholars alike. This is especially true of women's growing, if not revolutionary, involvement in the economy. A familiar exception is the trip linking work and home, which has been consistently and persistently shorter for women than men. That said, new reports suggest that the gender gap in commuting time and distance may have quietly vanished in some areas. To explore this possibility, I use panel data from the American Housing Survey to better measure and explain commute trends for the entire United States from 1985 through 2005. They overwhelmingly indicate that differences stubbornly endure, with men's and women's commuting distances converging only slowly and commuting times diverging. My results also show that commuting times are converging for all races, especially for women, and women's trips to work by transit are dwindling rapidly. Thus sex continues to play an important role explaining travel, housing, and labor market dynamics, with major implications for planning practice.
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| [16] |
Space, time and the disruption of behaviour in cities [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a040459 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Planning control of urban environments implies decisions which affect vast aggregates of population. Despite the extent of these consequences this paper presents a case for an initial approach to the problem of informing such decisions, which is disaggregated in the sense that it focuses on the behaviour of individuals. The fabric of a city which a planner helps to organize is no more than a context for behaviour, and the constraints and difficulties currently experienced by those operating in this context have been the objects of a research interest for some time. This paper summarizes this work and suggests possible extensions.
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| [17] |
Action space as planning concept in spatial planning [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02496820 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Society is becoming more and more complex. This shows up in an increasing diversity of activity and mobility patterns of individuals, households, companies and organizations. In a network society, the significance of physical distance declines as the importance of available time increases. Many spatial planning concepts like ‘location policy’ and ‘the compact city’ and the criteria of accessibility do not take these developments sufficiently into account. This reduces the effectiveness of mobility and spatial policy.Spatial planning can benefit from deeper insight into the time-space options that individuals have. For that reason, planners need concepts that help them to understand the behaviour of individual actors and to influence them at the local and regional level. One such concept is action space: the area within which persons can undertake activities. This paper presents the theoretical backgrounds of this concept.A typology of action space for dual-income households with children, living in two Dutch municipalities, is constructed and analyzed. In addition, a model of action space, called MASTIC, is developed. This model allows planners to determine the degree to which the action spaces of individuals can be influenced. Some applications of the model are discussed: to identify the mobility effects of urban form; to coordinate services at the local level; and, finally, to assess the influence of demographic, cultural and economic developments on the composition of the population and thereby to study the aggregate mobility effects of an area.
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| [18] |
Suburban pink collar ghettos: The spatial entrapment of women [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1993.tb01933.x URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Abstract The restructuring of the U.S. economy has resulted in the expansion and suburbanization of office employment. One theory is that an attraction of suburban locations is their large supply of women whose domestic responsibilities restrict their employment prospects and job-search area, spatially entrapping themin their neighborhood of residence. Firms employing large numbers of pink collar workers may relocate to the suburbs to employ these spatially entrapped women. I examine the applicability of the spatial-entrapment thesis underpinning much of the literature on the changing geography of office locations, gender divisions of labor, and urban labor markets. I use “triangulation” as a research strategy that involves the analysis of a variety of overlapping work-place and residential-based commuting studies and indepth, interactive interviews with the personnel managers of suburban offices and suburban women employed as clerical workers. The results show that, contrary to “conventional wisdom,” commutes and that neither the presence of another adult nor children in the household decreases a woman's work-trip. A reconceptualization of the spatial-entrapment thesis is offered, which attempts to untagle the relationship between women's commutes and the extent to which they are enmeshed in an evolving, complex web of localized relations.
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| [19] |
The effect of location, mobility and socio-demographic factors on task and time allocation of households [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-006-0007-3 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper investigates the role of location factors in task and time allocation at the household level. It is hypothesized that, if time constraints are less binding as a result of living in an urban area or owning more cars, spouses engage more often and longer in out-of-home activities and schedule their activities more independently. The hypotheses are tested with logistic and Cox regression models of activity participation and time allocation on a data set collected in the Amsterdam trecht region in the Netherlands. Results suggest that the hypotheses are supported with respect to specific household activity scheduling decisions.
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| [20] |
Weekly rhythms in task and time allocation of households [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-009-9190-3 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Analysis of household activity scheduling has to date been limited to one-day periods. This paper extends the study of household task allocation to a one-week period. Using a one-week time use survey held under couples in The Netherlands in 2003, the paper proposes indicators for measuring task allocation on a daily and weekly scale and investigates to what extent role expectations, work status and indicators of time pressure influence task allocation patterns. The outcomes suggest that egalitarian role expectations and higher female work status lead to a more balanced allocation of work and households tasks between spouses. More traditional role views and increased time pressure lead to more specialisation and inequality between spouses. Interestingly, households under time pressure apply day-to-day specialisation to arrive at balanced weekly allocation totals.
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| [21] |
Daily commuting time: The stakes for working mothers in France [J].
The length of daily commuting time between the home and the place of business accentuates the difficulties encountered by salaried mothers in reconciling their professional and familial roles. The majority refuse jobs at too great a distance from their homes. Nevertheless, a study conducted among mothers of children under 16 years of age brings to light two radically different forms of behavior corresponding to two different strategies. In the first case, proximity of employment is an absolute priority and long commuting time an insurmountable obstacle. Among the mothers who adopt this behavioral attitude, many have little formal education and occupy positions requiring few skills; thus much more is at stake in the distance to their place of business because they less often have a car at their disposal for commuting than do other salaried women. In the second case, there is a strategy of greater investment in professional life: full-time work and the acceptance of long commuting time in order to occupy a more skilled position. These salaried mothers are, of course, managers, but also, in not inconsiderable proportions, office workers and skilled workers. For working mothers, maneuverability in time management is also determined by the urban context. Salaried mothers put more time into commuting in the metropolitan Paris area than in the provinces. In return, they have access to a larger range of jobs served by an elaborate network of public transportation. Primary and secondary teachers seem to benefit from the best working conditions: they often work close to home and declare much more frequently than do other working mothers that they have some free time.
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| [22] |
The impacts of household structure on the travel behaviour of seniors and young parents in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.03.008 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Various studies have suggested that aging and the related travel patterns are socially and culturally constructed. China’s specific household structures – with co-residence of seniors, their adult children and grandchildren-are therefore expected to have huge implications on the travel outcomes of the household members. Based on the dataset of Nanjing Residents Travel Survey (2008), the paper attempts to reveal the impacts of the special household structures on travel behaviour of both seniors and young parents. The results indicate that the elderly co-resided with their adult children tend to make much fewer trips and travel shorter distances while spending less time on travel than seniors who live alone or as couples, especially for leisure trips. However, young parents in the ‘extended family’ are inclined to travel longer for commuting in terms of both distance and time, while they make fewer shopping trips, compared to young parents in ‘core families’.
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| [23] |
Elderly co-residence and the household responsibilities hypothesis: Evidence from Nanjing, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2015.1039407 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
In this paper, we analyze the effects of co-residence with elderly parents on gender differences in travel. The Household Responsibility Hypothesis (HRH) explains differences in the role of women regarding household responsibilities. However, research so far has studied "Western" household types while excluding households with co-residing elderly parents. Furthermore, research has paid exclusive attention to gender differences in commuting trips, and has neglected the effects of built environment characteristics. In view of these shortcomings, we pose the following research questions: what are the determinants of gendered differences in travel behavior, and specifically, what are the effects of elderly co-residence in households and land use on gender differences in trip frequency and travel distance? In addition to the HRH, we introduce the Elderly Co-residence Hypothesis, which suggests that co-residing elderly parents take over household responsibilities from adult women, resulting in diminishing gender differences in working-age travel patterns. We present the results of empirical research in Nanjing, China, that support this hypothesis.
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| [24] |
Space in the study of labor markets [J].https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100034 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A common claim in the economic, geographic, and sociological literatures on labor markets is that space "matters" for labor market outcomes. We review three distinct literatures that take the relationship between labor markets and geographic space as a central concern, in particular: (a) the research on race and spatial mismatch; (b) the literature on gender, space, and labor markets; and (c) the research on the spatial agglomeration of employers and its relationship to workers' careers and economic growth. Our goal in this review is to shed light on the key mechanisms by which spatial factors might work in the context of the labor market. Despite taking contrasting positions—for some of these discussions, the emphasis is on space as a constraining factor, whereas for others space is primarily a facilitator of labor market transactions—the issue of social networks emerges as an important theoretical thread across all these literatures. We conclude by considering the implications of this mechanism and suggesting lines of future research for the study of space and labor markets.
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| [25] |
More or less travel: Personal mobility trends in the Swedish population focusing gender and cohort [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.06.004 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study explores mainstream trends and countertrends in the development of spatial mobility in the Swedish population. Tracing incipient change in travel behaviour is important for understanding the preconditions for social and environmental sustainability. We use data from the Swedish national travel surveys, conducted intermittently over almost 3002years (1978–2006), covering both daily and long-distance mobility. International travel is included for the last decade. With respect to mainstream trends, the results primarily concern the continuation of the spatial extension of overall mobility and of the motorization and individualization of travel modes, as well as an upward convergence between women’s and men’s mobility. When it comes to countertrends, substantial reductions in daily mobility and long-distance domestic travel are observed among the young.
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| [26] |
Modeling household activity-travel interactions as parallel constrained choices [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-005-5328-0 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The daily activity-travel patterns of individuals often include interactions with other household members, which we observe in the form of joint activity participation and shared rides. Explicit representation of joint activity patterns is a widespread deficiency in extant travel forecasting models and remains a relatively under-developed area of travel behavior research. In this paper, we identify several spatially defined tour patterns found in weekday household survey data that describe this form of interpersonal decision-making. Using pairs of household decision makers as our subjects, we develop a structural discrete choice model that predicts the separate, parallel choices of full-day tour patterns by both persons, subject to the higher level constraint imposed by their joint selection of one of several spatial interaction patterns, one of which may be no interaction. We apply this model to the household survey data, drawing inferences from the household and person attributes that prove to be significant predictors of pattern choices, such as commitment to work schedules, auto availability, commuting distance and the presence of children in the household. Parameterization of an importance function in the models shows that in making joint activity-travel decisions significantly greater emphasis is placed on the individual utilities of workers relative to non-workers and on the utilities of women in households with very young children. The model and methods are prototypes for tour-based travel forecasting systems that seek to represent the complex interaction between household members in an integrated model structure.
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| [27] |
Grandparents as childcare providers: An in-depth analysis of the case of Xiamen, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2007.08.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Dominant research effort on older persons in China has focused on the impact of the fast-graying demography and the impending problem of supporting an ageing population. The ethnographic and survey results from this study show grandparents to be an integral part of the process of raising grandchildren and of family life in urban Xiamen. It is therefore, necessary to have a better knowledge of the lived experience of these grandparents. The choice theory framework posited by Goodfellow in assessing the levels of satisfaction of grandparents as regular childcare providers is used to examine the empirical data. Two out of the four dimensions in this framework have been found to have some relevance to the Chinese experience. It is suggested that future research fine tunes the theory by formulating new dimensions that emerge from indigenous Chinese empirical data.
|
| [28] |
A model of activity participation and travel interactions between household heads [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-2615(96)00027-6 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
A structural model is used to explain activity interactions between heads of households and, in doing so, to explain household demand for travel. The model attempts to capture links between activity participation and associated derived travel, links between activities performed by male and female heads, links between types of travel, and time-budget feedbacks from travel to activity participation. Data for pairs of opposite gender heads of households are from the 1994 Portland Activity and Travel Survey. The results suggest that a feedback mechanism should be introduced in trip generation models to reflect the effect of activity frequency and duration on the level of associated travel.
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Gender and mobility: New approaches for informing sustainability [J]. |
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Gender and urban activity patterns in Uppsala, Sweden [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/214257 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This article focuses on the ways that gender-related roles affect the daily travel-activity patterns of a sample of Swedish urbanites. We use data of twelve measures to compare the travel-activity patterns of men and women employed full-time. The results of the analyses indicate that traditional gender roles remain in force even when the women of the household are employed full-time outside the home.
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| [31] |
Gender differences in work-trip length: Explanations and implications [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.6.3.193 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Many studies have shown that women work closer to home than do men, but few have probed the reasons for this persistent finding and none has done so at the metropolitan scale or considered the link between journey-to-work patterns and the occupational segregation of women. We first review the various possible reasons for women's shorter journeys to work and then examine each of these with data from the Baltimore, Maryland SMSA. We compare the work-trip distances and times of 303 employed women with those of 484 men, drawn from the 1977 Baltimore Travel Demand Data. As expected, women's work trips are significantly shorter than men's in both travel time and distance Women's lower incomes, their concentration in female-dominated occupations, and their greater reliance on the bus and auto passenger modes all help to explain their shorter work trips Male-female differences in part versus full-time work status, occupational group, and, most surprisingly, household responsibility, did not, however, contribute to explaining observed gender differences in joumey-to-work patterns. We also found that the difference in the home and work locations of women and men could explain women's shorter work trips. A higher proportion of women than of men live and work in the central city, where journey to work distances are shorter, and there is some evidence that female-dominated employment opportunities are more uniformly distributed over the SMSA whereas male-dominated jobs are clustered in certain districts. We conclude that working women are more sensitive to distance than men are for reasons related more to their mobility than to their "dual roles" of wage earner/homemaker Also, because of women's sensitivity to commuting distance, the location of different types of employment opportunities is likely to play a role in the occupational segregation of women.
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| [32] |
Spatial dimensions of the gender division of labor in a local labor market [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.9.2.180 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
It is widely known that women work in different occupations and industries from men. With data from the Worcester, Massachusetts metropolitan area, we examine the extent to which employment opportunities are also spatially segmented along gender lines. After reviewing the reasons for previous scholarly neglect of the question of the location of employment opportunities by gender at a fine spatial scale, we present several reasons for expecting such patterns to exist. Our analysis of special runs from the 1980 Census Journey-to-Work File for Worcester reveals striking differences in the locations of women'svs. men's employment at the censustract level. Moreover, within each industrial sector, e.g., manufacturing or consumer industries, women work in different parts of the metropolitan area from men. We begin to explore the processes that might generate such patterns by examining the distances traveled by women vs. men to work in census tracts where the employment is held predominantly by workers of one sex. The findings show that men generally travel longer distances to work than do women working in the same tract regardless of the sex composition of the tracr's labor force. Moreover, women's travel distances to workplaces in the suburbs vary according to whether employment in the tract is held primarily by men or by women; women travel shorter distances to work in suburban tracts with female-dominated employment than they do to work in suburban tracts with male-dominated employment. The analysis suggests that suburban women in particular face spatially constrained local labor markets. We conclude with some thoughts on the implications of the patterns we have documented.
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| [33] |
Job search and the occupational segregation of women [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1991.tb01688.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract The segregation of women and men into distinctly different occupations is an important reason why women's position in the formal labor market is not on a par with men's. We investigate the extent to which differences in how people find their jobs help to explain gender-based occupational segregation. Our analysis is based upon in-depth personal interviews with women and men from a representative sample of 620 households living in the Worcester, Massachusetts metropolitan area in 1987. The majority of our respondents, both women and men, had not actively searched for their present jobs, but had allen into them largely through informal personal contacts. The channels of information through which people obtained their jobs were, however, markedly different for women versus men, and for women in female-dominated occupations as opposed to women in male-dominated occupations. The gendered nature of social life leads women, and particularly women in female-dominated occupations, to receive job information from other women, whereas men find out about jobs from other men. Community-based contacts are more important for women than for men and are particularly so for women in female-dominated occupations. The gendered nature of social life also prompts women to value different job attributes from men; women who end up in female-dominated occupations privilege the job's proximity to home and suitable work hours over and above wage considerations. Women search more locally than do men, and from a residential location that cannot be shifted to accommodate a job location; they draw upon personal contacts that reinforce both the local nature of the job search and the gendering of occupations. These findings suggest that the prevailing economists formalized approach to modeling the job-finding process contributes little to understanding women's position in the labor market.
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Mobility in different generations of older persons: The development of daily travel in different cohorts in Denmark, Norway and Sweden [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2010.03.011 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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The influence of household type on gender differences in work trip distance [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1992.00161.x URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Abstract Conflicting evidence exists in the literature on commuting about whether or not the greater household responsibilities of women lead to their widely observed shorter work trips compared to men. In light of changes in American houehold structures, this study reexamines the household responsibility hypothesis by focusing on household type (defined in terms of number of workers present in the home). Male and female work-trip distances are compared for Baltimore workers in single-worker households and for those in two-worker households. The findings support the household responsibility hypothesis by showing a larger and more significant sex disparity among respondents in two-worker households than among those in single-worker households even after controlling for other factors, including presence of children. These results, and the finding that married women have shorter work trips than married men, are in line with the general conclusions of some previous studies that the unequal division of labor within the household is partly responsible for the gender differnce.
|
| [36] |
An integrated spatio-temporal GIS toolkit for exploring intra-household interactions [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-007-9146-4 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper reports on the development of an integrated spatio-temporal GIS toolkit that facilitates the exploration of intra-household interactions. Two tools comprise the toolkit. The first tool, Space-Time Coincidence Analyst , identifies joint activity/travel episodes undertaken by household members. The core of this tool is a set of flexible criteria for classifying episodes as either joint or independent. The second tool, Space-Time Path Visualizer , not only displays space-time paths for household members, but also shows joint episodes undertaken by any two household members together. The toolkit can be applied to any household-based, activity/travel data set so long as required information is specified by the user. To demonstrate its usefulness for research, the toolkit is applied to the TAPS (Toronto Activity Panel Survey) 2002 03 data set. The results suggest that considerable variation exists in the number of joint activity/travel episodes identified using different classification criteria. Specifically, when using restrictive criteria (i.e., same timing, specific activity type/travel mode), only 2,265 joint activity/travel episodes are identified compared to 8,791 when using more flexible criteria. In turn, our results show that certain key attributes for independent and joint activity/travel episodes (i.e., frequency per household, starting time, ending time and duration) also vary under the different classification criteria.
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| [37] |
Exploring day-to-day variability in time use for household members [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2010.04.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Studies of activity-travel patterns typically use 1-day or pooled samples, and more often than not, are conducted at the individual level. By default, they assume that activity-travel decisions are uniform from 1day to the next and individuals are independent from one another. Such assumptions do not reflect reality. This research investigates day-to-day variability in activity time-use patterns of household members while incorporating variations in their interactions. Results from a descriptive analysis and a series of daily structural equation models provide evidence of day-to-day variability in activity time-use patterns. Specifically, time-use patterns on weekdays are substantially different from those on weekends. Furthermore, compared to independent activities, there is a higher proportion of intra-personal variability and a lower proportion of inter-personal variability for joint activities. These findings suggest that transportation planners should not combine independent and joint activities as has been the case in the recent past, nor should they use single-day or pooled models when estimating activity time-use patterns.
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| [38] |
Maturing motorization and household travel: The case of nuclear-family households [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2607(86)90098-1 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The effect of car ownership on household travel behavior diminishes as a society becomes motorized. The statistical analysis of this study shows that households without cars have travel patterns distinct from those households that own cars. Maturing motorization, however, implies that only a small number of households fall in this category. At the same time the differences in household travel patterns between one-car households and multi-car households, or between two-car households and households with three or more cars, are much less significant. Consequently, car ownership no longer exhibits a strong association with observed household travel patterns. The study further shows that household structure expressed as stage in lifecycle accounts for as much or more variations in travel pattern indicators as do household size, income, number of workers, number of adults, number of drivers and number of cars. Activity engagement and hence trip rate is determined largely by lifecycle stage, not by car ownership. It is also shown that driver-trip time expenditure and number of driver trips have less systematic variations across lifecycle stages, indicating nonlinear relationships between household person trip generation and car trip generation, vehicle-miles traveled, and transportation facility usage.
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| [39] |
Gender and individual access to urban opportunities: A study using space-time measures [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.00158 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Conventional accessibility measures based on the notion of locational proximity ignore the role of complex travel behavior and space–time constraints in determining individual accessibility. As these factors are especially significant in women's everyday lives, all conventional accessibility measures suffer from an inherent “gender bias.” This study conceptualizes individual accessibility as space–time feasibility and provides formulations of accessibility measures based on the space–time prism construct. Using a subsample of European Americans from a travel diary data set collected in Franklin County, Ohio, space–time accessibility measures are implemented with a network-based GIS method. Results of the study indicate that women have lower levels of individual access to urban opportunities when compared to men, although there is no difference in the types of opportunities and areas they can reach given their space–time constraints. Further, individual accessibility has no relationship with the length of the commute trip, suggesting that the journey to work may not be an appropriate measure of job access.
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| [40] |
Gender differences in space-time constraints [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.2000.tb00125.x URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Abstract Summary This study explores gender differences in space-time constraints and their impact on women's and men's activity-travel patterns from a time-geographic perspective. Using a travel diary data set collected in Columbus, Ohio (USA), the time-budget and fixity constraints of three population subgroups are examined. This paper concludes that space-time constraints have a significant impact on individual's activity-travel patterns.
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| [41] |
Beyond 'women and transport': Towards new geographies of gender and daily mobility [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/030913339902300406 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The discovery that orbital variations are the driving force behind Quaternary climate change provides an impetus to set local and regional records of environmental change into the global context, a principle that has been strongly embraced by Quaternary scientists working in New Zealand. Their major achievements and significant current initiatives are reviewed here. The importance of the New Zealand Quaternary stems from its geographical context: a climatically sensitive, remote oceanic, southern location spanning 17 degrees of the mid-latitudes; an obliquely convergent plate boundary setting resulting in a high mountain range athwart the prevailing westerlies, active volcanism, a youthful and dynamic landscape, and mountains high enough to maintain glaciers today; and a remarkably short prehistory. The resultant records show marked environmental changes due not only to climatic oscillations but also to vigorous, active tectonism and volcanism. The Taupo Volcanic Zone, containing the world's strongest concentration of youthful rhyolitic volcanoes, has produced at least 10 000 km3 of magma in the last 2 Ma. Climatic interpretations of records from marine sediments in the New Zealand region, together with several long sequences of alternating marine and terrestrial sediments, indicate broad synchrony with Northern Hemisphere events (within limitations of dating), although there are differences in detail for shorter-term climatic events. It is not yet certain that glacial advances coincided precisely with those in the Northern Hemisphere or were of similar duration. Late Cainozoic glaciation commenced c. 2.6-2.4 Ma but the record of glacial deposits is fragmentary and poorly dated except for the most recent events. The Last (Otira) Glaciation, from c. 100-10 ka, was characterized by at least five glacial advances including during the Last Glacial Maximum from 25 to 15 ka, when snowlines fell by 600-800 m. New Zealand evidence for cooling during the Younger Dryas stade is equivocal whilst isotopic records from speleothems, and other data, indicate warmer and wetter conditions from 10-7 ka, broadly conforming with records from mid-latitude Northern Hemisphere locations. Future advances will require sampling at shorter timescales, improvements in the accuracy and precision of existing dating methods and the development of new ones, extension of palaeoecological techniques to cover the full potential of New Zealand's diverse biota, and a stronger emphasis on quantification of palaeoclimatic parameters.
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| [42] |
Family values and coresidence with married children in urban China [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/3005876 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The high level of coresidence of parents with married children in China, as in much of East Asia, is generally understood as a manifestation of the persistence of traditional family values in this region. In urban China the opposite is true: coresidence is maintained in spite of a diversity of both traditional and nontraditional norms. Survey data gathered among parents aged 60 and older in nine Chinese cities are used to analyze people's preferences and actual living situation: Do they live (or prefer to live) with a married child? If so, do they live (or prefer to live) with a married son? A large share of parents do not have the living arrangement that they consider best, as they adapt their behavior to other circumstances. Even their preferences depend on their situation, including their housing space, needs for assistance, family size, and perceived family relations. We conclude that the Chinese family is "modern," in the sense that parents' family decisions represent strategic choices about how to live, not predetermined by a fixed cultural model.
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| [43] |
Why women work closer to home [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00420988120080341 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper analyzes the extent to which differences in labor force status, in household composition, and in household roles account for sex differences in workplace-residence separation. Modelling work trip length as the outcome of the choice of household residential and individual job locations, equilibrium work trip length is estimated empirically as a function of labor market, housing, and household characteristics for male and female employees in seven different household categories. Data from the 1976 Panel Survey of Income Dynamics are used. The study concludes that while sex differences in job tenure, work hours, and wages are in themselves sufficient to fully account for observed sex differences in workplace-residence separation, sex differences in household 'roles' (i.e., responses to spouses' characteristics) are of even greater importance in influencing women to work 'closer to home'.
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| [44] |
Women's paid work and moral economies of care [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/14649360500074642 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Female labour force participation has been increasing in recent decades, in part encouraged by state policies to raise the employment rate to encourage economic competitiveness and combat social exclusion. Social provision for care, however, has lagged behind this increase, creating practical and moral dilemmas for individuals and for society, facing parents with complex choices about how to combine work and care. In this paper, we draw on a qualitative study in London to explore the extent to which the large-scale entry of women into waged work is altering women's understandings of their duties and responsibilities to care for others. We conclude that their decisions are influenced by class position, entrenched gender inequalities in the labour market, varying abilities to pay for care and complex gendered understandings of caring responsibilities.
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| [45] |
Connecting time and space: The significance of transformations in women's work in the city [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2006.00656.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Growing numbers of women with children living in western cities are entering the labour market, raising new questions about changes in the allocation of the tasks of social reproduction between household members and others and about the effects of the increasing time women now spend in the workplace. As Manuel Castells noted over 25 years ago, women's unpaid labour has long been essential, not only in the domestic arena, but also in patching together facilities separated in space. The spatial layout of cities, with its specialized and segregated land-uses, only works, he argued, if women's unpaid labour is available to connect urban locations. But many women now spend many more hours in the labour market, replacing their former domestic labour with a range of commodified goods and services as well as by help from a range of related or unrelated others, sometimes but not always remunerated and/or by state-provided or supported services. This article examines the consequences of the growth of women's employment in Britain and the concomitant decline of the old breadwinner family, the growth of workfare policies that assume all individuals are available for waged work and the rise of commodified caring. The arguments are illustrated by empirical examples from interviews undertaken with middle-class mothers in waged work in London and Manchester in the UK. Copyright (c) 2006 The Authors. Journal Compilation (c) 2006 Joint Editors and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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| [46] |
Trip-chaining trends in the United States: Understanding travel behavior for policy making [J].https://doi.org/10.3141/1917-22 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper uses data from the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey and the 2001 National Household Travel Survey to examine trip-chaining trends in the United States. The research focuses on trip chaining related to the work trip and contrasts travel characteristics of workers who trip chain with those who do not, including their distance from work, current levels of trip making, and the purposes of stops made within chains. Trends examined include changes in the purpose of stops and in trip-chaining behavior by gender and life cycle. A robust growth in trip chaining occurred between 1995 and 2001, nearly all in the direction of home to work. Men increased their trip chaining more than women, and a large part of the increase was to stop for coffee (the Starbucks effect). It was found that workers who trip chain live farther from their workplaces than workers who do not. It was also found that, in two-parent, two-worker households that drop off children at school, women are far more likely than men to incorporate that trip into their commute and that those trips are highly constrained between 8:00 a.m. and 9:00 a.m. An analysis was done of workers who stopped to shop and those who did not but made a separate shopping trip from home; a large potential to increase trip-chaining behavior in shopping trips was found. Results of these analyses have important policy implications as well as implications for travel demand forecast model development. Finally, this paper uses these analyses to develop conclusions about the utility of transportation policies and programs that use the promotion of trip chaining as a primary travel demand management strategy.
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| [47] |
Gender, race, and commuting among service sector workers [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1991.00001.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The generality that women work closer to home and have shorter commuting times than men needs to be assessed for racial groups. Statistical analysis of commuting times for a large sample of service workers in the New York metropolitan area shows that black and hispanic women commute as far as their male counterparts and their commuting times far exceed those of white men and women. Workplace factors, such as income, occupation, and job accessibility, are important in explaining these findings.
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| [48] |
Commuting times: The role of gender, children and part-time work [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2011.12.001 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
It has been widely established in the UK and other developed countries that men commute longer than women and that fathers travel furthest to work while mothers travel least. This paper models a wide variety of factors that affect commuting times including gender, presence of children and working hours (part- and full-time work). It finds that of particular importance to the length of commute are the worker age, having children, the age of their youngest child, occupation, weekly pay, and mode of transport (with public transport being associated with longer commutes). The region of residence was important for men and women working full-time but not for part timers (except for women in London), while ethnicity and owner occupation were associated with commuting length for full-time men only. The results suggest that while gender, working hours and childcare responsibility are often inter-related, it is useful to disaggregate their effects when modelling or developing policy.
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| [49] |
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| [50] |
The influence of gender on daily car use and on willingness to reduce car use in Sweden [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.04.002 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper tests the influence of gender on daily car use and on willingness to reduce car use. Car use is modeled in terms of practical factors combined with manifestations of the specific influence of gender. Willingness to reduce car use is modeled in terms of attitudinal factors using a theory of environmentalism. The results confirm the existence of a gender component. The concluding discussion suggests that more research is needed to further our theoretical understanding and methodological expertise regarding how gender can be modeled in travel research in order to attain current policy regarding a gender equal transportation system.
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| [51] |
Understanding women and men's travel patterns: The research challenge [C] |
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Examining commuting patterns: Results from a journey-to-work model disaggregated by gender and occupation [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098010368576 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Typically, the high level of aggregation in conventional analysis of urban commuting may obscure meaningful differences among groups of commuters. This paper disaggregates US census datasets, taking commuters’ gender and occupation into consideration. Refined measures—jobs/workers ratio, average commuting distance and the number of in- and out-commuters—are introduced through the disaggregate approach and are tested for gender differences. Using US Census Transport Planning Package (CTPP) data for Rochester, MN, this study shows the spatial structure of the labour market among 18 worker groups. The results bear important implications for regional labour market plans considering the spatial mismatch between jobs and housing.
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| [53] |
Gendered travel mode choice: A focus on car deficient households [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.02.011 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
This paper studies travel mode choice with a focus on car use in car deficient households from a gender perspective. Car deficient households are defined as households with more drivers than cars. We derive some key hypotheses from the literature and use the German Mobility Panel 1994–2008 to simultaneously test some of these hypotheses in a pooled data approach with cluster robust regression techniques. We find support for the social roles hypothesis which claims that mode choice may be impacted by the gendered roles a person takes in a household. Participation in paid work does not systematically affect car use more strongly than participation in unpaid work. Thus, there is no support for the economic power hypothesis which claims that car access is a function of intrahousehold economic power. The strong effect of ’sex’ leads us to conclude that there must be more behind gender differences in mode choice than just social roles. Gender differences in travel mode choice even in households with as many cars as drivers suggest that preferences may be at play. The paper concludes with an outlook on further research.
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| [54] |
Exploring the juggling of responsibilities with space-time accessibility analysis [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.29.6.556 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
The ways employed parents negotiate and combine employment and caring responsibilities has recently attracted increased attention in the social sciences. Nonetheless, many studies provide only limited insight into the opportunities that specific physical, institutional, and cultural contexts offer to parents for "juggling" responsibilities. Space-time accessibility modeling might be used to fill this gap, although its conceptualizations of human subjects, space, and time need to be rethought in light of feminist geographic concerns. We propose ethnographic or narrative space-time accessibility analysis as a partial and situated way of alerting readers/spectators to the ways constraints coalesce into opportunities for juggling responsibilities. The approach is illustrated through a case study of a highly educated mother who has to reconcile fixed employment times, chauffeuring her son to childcare, and a lengthy commute via the congested highways around Utrecht in the Netherlands.
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| [55] |
Time windows in workers' activity patterns: Empirical evidence from the Netherlands [J].https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023905020890 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper assumes that activities at the home and work location are important determinants of individuals' paths through time and space. Fixed activities at these locations determine to a large extent the duration and timing of time windows 鈥 blocks of time available for participation in travel and out-of-home non-work activities. Taking the time spent at home and at the workplace as a starting point, this paper classifies activity patterns on workdays into six groups with distinct home- and work-stay patterns. For this, data are used from the 1998 Netherlands National Travel Survey. The six clusters vary in terms of the duration and timing of time windows and some of the differences can be explained by commute characteristics, types of non-work activities performed, workers' sociodemographic attributes, and their spatiotemporal environment. However, the impact of sociodemographic and spatiotemporal variables on cluster membership is shown to be weak.
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| [56] |
A microlevel analysis of residential context and travel time [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a34159 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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How fixed is fixed? Gendered rigidity of space-time constraints and geographies of everyday activities [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.09.002 URL 摘要
The space–time fixity constraint that binds activities to specific times and places has long been considered an important concept in transportation, feminist and communication geography. However, only few studies to date have directly examined differences in the space–time fixity of everyday activities, and the knowledge of how the context of activity participation affects space–time fixity is even more limited. Using space–time diary data from Columbus (Ohio, USA) and multilevel models, we investigate how variations in fixity levels are associated with activity type, other activity attributes, and the personal, household and geographical background of the person pursuing the activity. We consider whether these associations differ between men and women to understand better how space–time constraints operate differently in the everyday lives of men and women. The results suggest that context matters: fixity levels depend not just on activity type but also on when, where, for how long, with whom an activity is conducted, as well as on the background of the person initiating the activity, and some of these effects differ systematically between men and women. Implications of the findings for academic research and public policies are also discussed.
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| [58] |
Gender differences in space-time mobility patterns in a postcommunist city: A case study based on mobile positioning in the suburbs of Tallinn [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/b38068 URL [本文引用: 1] |
| [59] |
An empirical analysis of the commute to work patterns of males and females in two-earner households [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00420988620080111 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate the proposition that residential decisions are made with reference to the male head of household's job location, disadvantaging females in the labor market. A sample of approximately 50,000 adults in two-earner households in urban areas distributed across the United States is selected from public use microdata from the 1980 census and used to estimate a simultaneous model to explain commute to work behavior of men and women. The model is estimated separately for households that did and did not change residences in the past year. The impacts of the new residences on the commute times of both male and female workers, holding other variables constant, are compared. We conclude that residential selection does favor males relative to females, although there is evidence that this advantage is eliminated as the ratio of female to male earnings in the same household narrows.
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| [60] |
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| [61] |
Gender inequality and social structure in urban China [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038594028003007 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This article proposes an interpretation of changes in patterns of gender inequality in urban China in terms of the specific interrelationships of production and reproduction in Chinese work-units (danwei). The historical background of the structural conditions for gender inequality in pre-revolutionary Chinese society is sketched out, emphasising the lack of institutional separation of household and enterprise. The communist danwei is a multi-functional organisation which combines productive and reproductive functions. This structure has been conducive to the relatively greater gender equality which has been achieved in communist China. The reforms of recent years introduce pressures to separate productive and reproductive functions, which are likely to erode the trends towards greater gender equality.
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| [62] |
Gendered space-time constraints, activity participation and household structure: A case study using a GPS-based activity survey in suburban Beijing, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12167 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Abstract Space-time constraints imposed by employment and household responsibilities may lead to greater gender differences in individuals’ participation in daily activities. However, few studies have directly examined the impact of household structure on the gender differences in space-time constraints associated with various daily activities due to the lack of accurate space-time data. Using a 7-day GPS-based activity-travel diary dataset collected in Beijing, this paper investigates how household structure influences men's and women's space-time constraints and reduces the related gender differences in daily activity participation. The results suggest that gender and household structure matters. Getting help from retired parents reduces the level of fixity household heads perceive and decreases gender differences in space-time constraints. However, the degree of the impact differs among activities and retired parents’ age, and fixity level depends on the individual and household background of the person initiating the activity.
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| [63] |
Travel to work and household responsibility: New evidence [J].https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004945903696 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
A persistent empirical finding in the research on travel patterns is that women tend to engage in shorter work commutes than men. Research evaluating the degree to which this gender differential in commuting may be explained by the division of labor in the household has produced decidedly mixed findings. This paper presents a critical review of the methods and results of recent research on the gender differential in commuting along with the associated implications for the household responsibility hypothesis (HRH). While all of the articles reviewed are informative and unique, not all conclusions are well supported. The paper then tests the HRH using the 1990 NPTS travel data. The new evidence confirms that women continue to exhibit shorter commute times and distances than men and provides support for the HRH. The paper concludes with a summary of findings and recommendations for further research.
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| [64] |
Geographical access to childcare and mothers' labour-force participation [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2005.00439.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper addresses the question whether geographical access to institutionalised childcare influences mothers' labour-force participation in the Netherlands. The conceptual framework of the paper is based on a time-geographic perspective of female labour-force participation. According to this perspective, women are faced with severe day-to-day space-time constraints that form a spatial barrier to labour-force participation. It is argued that, for many mothers with pre-school-age children, access to employment opportunities is partly determined by geographical access to childcare facilities. Using data from the Netherlands Housing Demand survey and a detailed measure of geographical access to childcare, it is shown that, for mothers with young children, the probability of being engaged in paid employment increases as the number of day-care slots per 100 children in the residential area increases. In the regression model, the effect of access to childcare on mothers' labour-force participation is estimated after individual, household, and local labour market characteristics are controlled for.
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| [65] |
Gender and the automobile: Analysis of nonwork service trips [J].https://doi.org/10.3141/2013-08 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Focusing on individual motorists in car-owning households in Germany, this analysis econometrically investigates the determinants of automobile travel for non-work service activities against the backdrop of two questions: 1) Does gender play a role in determining the probability of car use and the distance driven? 2) If so, how is this role mitigated or exacerbated by other socioeconomic attributes of the individual and the household in which they reside? Drawing on a panel of data collected between 1996 and 2003, we specify Heckman s sample selection model to control for biases that could otherwise arise from the existence of unobservable variables that determine both the discrete and continuous choices pertaining to car use.The results indicate that although women,on average, undertake more non-work travel than men, they undertake less of such travel by car, implying a greater reliance on other modes. Moreover, employment status, age, the number of children, automobile availability, and the proximity to public transit are all found to have significantly different effects on the probability of non-work car travel between men and women, but with the exception of automobile availability not on the distance driven.Taken together, these results suggest that policies targeted at reducing automobile dependency and associated negative externalities such as congestion are unlikely to have uniform effects across the sexes, findings having implications for both policy evaluation as well as travel demand forecasting.
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| [66] |
A model of household time allocation taking into consideration of hiring domestic helpers [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2008.05.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Household maintenance such as childcare not only induces activities and travel but also impose time constraints on individuals’ participation in other activities and travel. Instead of sharing household responsibilities, households may hire domestic helpers for household maintenance. Alternatively, they may get helps from members of the extended family such as parents of household heads. This paper develops a model to analyze households’ trade-offs between hiring domestic helpers for household maintenance and taking these responsibilities by household members. We will apply household economic theories to develop a time allocation model incorporating interactions among household members. We assume that households trade off the money they are willing to spend for hiring helpers with the time they may need to spend for household maintenance activities to maximize utilities, subject to time constraints. The model may be used to analyze the impacts of domestic helpers on household members’ time allocation to subsistence, maintenance and recreation activities. It may also be applied to analyze the impacts of government policies regarding the minimum salary of domestic helpers and the change of household members’ wage rates on households’ decision to hire helpers. The paper extends the current literature on intra-household activity–travel interactions by considering external helps from domestic helpers, which may contribute to the understanding of activity–travel patterns of household members.
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| [67] |
Men, women, job sprawl, and journey to work in the Philadelphia region [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/1087724X06297345 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The observation that increasing dispersion of employment opportunities leads to decreased travel times is reflective of a short-rem/phenomenon. Census-reported journey-to-work travel time is examined for the greater Philadelphia region, showing that more people are commuting by automobile, a mode usually associated with shorter journey times, but are reporting longer trip times. The finding is counterintuitive as it coincides with a period when new jobs were established in outlying areas and the region experienced a net loss in jobs. The study concludes that as job opportunities disperse into lower density areas, Philadelphia's existing high-capacity systems are underutilized, and transportation systems throughout the region that were designed for relatively low demand are becoming overwhelmed in time. The net effect is a breakdown of both the urban mass transit systems and the suburban and rural highway networks, the latter because of overuse and the former because of underuse.
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| [68] |
'Grandparents are the next best thing': Informal childcare for working parents in urban Britain [J].https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279402006657 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT This article is based on a unique empirical investigation of the contribution that informal childcare – relatives, friends or neighbours looking after children, usually on an unpaid basis – makes in allowing parents to go out to work. There has been little research on either the use of such complementary childcare by parents, or of the carers who undertake it, and this is a review of a two-stage investigation of both. One of the earliest initiatives of the Labour government elected in 1997 was to put a National Childcare Strategy in place. The strategy recognised the importance of childcare both for the development of children and in enabling parents – particularly mothers – to go out to work. To date, however, childcare needs and provision have been assessed almost entirely in terms of formal childcare. A clear understanding of why working parents use complementary childcare (particularly from grandparents) is essential for any childcare policy that hopes to be attuned to what families actually want. The article argues that policy makers, lured by a simplistic vision of economic vitality into adopting a behavioural paradigm from economics – in which parents are assumed to respond to purely financial incentives – are likely to find themselves distracted from important issues of the social well-being of working families with children. Childcare needs are related to dramatic changes in women's labour market participation over recent years, where the largest increase in female employment has been among mothers of children under the age of five. Neither mothers nor fathers may be in a position to provide the desired amount of childcare inside the nuclear household. This situation gives rise to the possibility of a ‘childcare deficit’. In failing to acknowledge and underpin the value which parents place upon complementary forms of childcare, policy makers are in danger of committing themselves to institutional arrangements which may make that deficit worse in the longer term.
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| [69] |
Representing household time allocation behavior by endogenously incorporating diverse intra-household interactions: A case study in the context of elderly couples [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2005.01.004 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Travel behavior models assuming individual decision-making processes have been a dominant theme in transportation studies. While the assumption that an individual can decide on all relevant aspects of some types of travel behavior may be reasonable, in many other aspects household members interact before making decisions about different activities that they perform and the time that is involved. On the other hand, different types of households may show different group decision-making mechanisms. In other words, there might exist diverse intra-household interactions during joint decision-making processes. To reflect this point, this paper aims to develop a new household time allocation model based on the iso-elastic class of social welfare function, which can include different types of household utility functions as special cases (e.g., Nash, utilitarianism, autocratic and max in types). Throughout this empirical analysis, which uses an activity diary data collected in a depopulated region of Japan, the effectiveness of the proposed model is confirmed. Furthermore, the model applicability in evaluating transportation policies for elderly people is examined based on a simulation analysis.
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| [70] |
Gendered resources, division of housework, and perceived fairness: A case in urban China [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.01122.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract Drawing upon equity and gender theories, we investigate Chinese couples' perceived fairness of the wife's disproportionately heavy household responsibility. Data come from in-depth interviews with 39 married couples in Beijing during the summer of 1998. Although housework division remained unequal among dual-earner couples, the majority of wives and husbands saw it as fair. We explore the notion of gendered resources by examining husbands' and wives' opinions about both paid and domestic work. We find that husband's breadwinner role and wife's housekeeper role retain their primary place in the family and that gender-role expectations produce gendered resources to both wives and husbands. These expectations release both the husbands, who have fulfilled the provider role, from the obligation to share housework equally, and the wives, who combine paid and domestic work, from an equal responsibility of breadwinning. Therefore, the failure to bring adequate gendered resources to a marriage, rather than the unequal distribution of housework, causes a sense of unfairness.
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