塔娜
, 申悦, 柴彦威
TA Na, SHEN Yue, CHAI Yanwei
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版权声明: 2016 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
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作者简介:
作者简介：塔娜(1986-),女,内蒙古包头人,博士后,主要研究方向为城市社会地理学、时空行为,E-mail: tanapku@gmail.com。
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摘要
中国城市转型带来了社会群体的异质化和生活方式的多元化,满足不同群体的社会需求成为人本规划的重要目标,需要城市研究更多地关注微观个体的行为差异。随着城市社会现代化进程的加速和个体生活选择的增加,生活方式、城市空间与时空行为三者的互动愈加增强,生活方式对个体时空行为决策具有限制作用,导致个体行为差异的扩大并影响个体对空间政策的应对方式,因而需要在行为研究中增加生活方式的视角。本文从生活方式的相关理论、时间地理学和活动分析法的理论基础出发,综述了生活方式视角下的时空行为研究在国内外的进展,系统介绍这一研究的2个重要方向,包括生活方式的定量测量和基于生活方式群体的行为模式解读,旨在为中国城市时空行为研究提供新的视角。
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Abstract
China's urban transformation has brought about heterogeneous social groups and diverse lifestyles. Meeting the social needs of diverse groups has become an important goal of people-oriented urban planning. Therefore more studies are required to investigate differences in individual behavior at the micro level. The concept of lifestyle, which represents both individual's orientation to their lives and behavior choice, has drawn increasing attention from urban geographers, transportation researchers, and urban planners. With the acceleration of modernization in urban areas and increased significance of individual choice, the interactions among lifestyle, urban space, and individual behavior are even more enhanced. Lifestyle has an essential influence on individual's behavior in daily life, leading to increased intergroup differences in individual behavior and coping strategy to space policy. Thus, scholars have argued that more behavioral studies from the perspective of lifestyle are needed. Even though the lifestyle concept has been used in behavioral studies in Western countries since the 1970s, empirical studies investigating the interactions among lifestyle, urban space, and individual behavior only boomed in the last 10 years and there exist very few behavioral studies from the perspective of lifestyle in China. Based on time geography and activity-based approach, this article reviews the progress of behavioral studies from the perspective of lifestyle in China and abroad. First, we summarize the two key theoretical foundations of this field. We point out that the life path-daily path dialectic in time geography and hierarchical decision model in activity-based approach are essential theory about the relationship among lifestyle, urban space, and individual behavior. Then, we further review the two trends in behavioral studies based on lifestyle. One is the quantitative measurements of lifestyle group clusters based on different indices. There are complex factors of lifestyle, including socio-demographics, urban form, attitude and value, and space-time behavior. Space-time behavior has become a key factor to measure lifestyle. Another is to understand behavioral patterns among lifestyle groups using complicate models. Existing studies have examined the impact of lifestyle on space-time behavior in daily life, and found that there are great behavior differences between lifestyle groups. By reviewing the state-of-the-art research of this field, we indicate that lifestyle perspective can provide a new method for Chinese behavioral studies to understand the complex socio-spatial transition in urban China.
Keywords：
近年来,城市空间研究和规划所面临的城市环境越来越复杂多变,持续增加的社会—文化分异和城市居民群体的多元化引起了地理学、社会学与规划学者的广泛关注(Scheiner et al, 2003; 柴彦威等, 2013)。从空间行为视角,学者希望深入认识个体行为模式,从而解释其差异原因,并通过规划与政策手段引导个体行为向可持续性方面发展。一般来说,对于个体行为分异的分析可从以下2个方面进行：一是从社会经济属性入手,分析不同社会经济群体的行为模式;二是从行为本身入手,分析具有相同行为模式的群体特征。
随着基于地域(place-based measures)的城市研究向基于个人(person-based measures)的城市研究转变,经典的时空行为的社会—人口统计学分异已经被生活方式的分异所挑战(Scheiner et al, 2003; Lee et al, 2011; McQuoid et al, 2012)。相同社会经济属性的个体面临的选择和制约更加差异化,导致同一社会群体内部的差异开始扩大,例如女性内部的差异、同一收入阶层的差异。因此一些学者提出生活方式的概念可能比生命周期阶段、收入群体等作为行为分异的划分指标更为有效(Hildebrand, 2003)。而在交通地理学领域,在“移动性转向”(mobility turn)的背景下,学者也开始对原有的经济和效用最大化假设下的理性人模型进行反思,提出行为可能受到生活方式、偏好、习惯、自选择等因素的影响(Choo et al, 2004; Cao et al, 2009; Scheiner, 2010; van Acker et al, 2016)。
生活方式可定义为与工作、家庭等社会角色和休闲、消费等生活理念密切相关的生活导向和长期选择,并通过各种行为模式在日常生活中表现出来(Salomon et al, 1983; van Acker et al, 2010)。有学者提出,随着城市社会现代化进程的加速和个体化程度的提高,生活方式、城市空间与时空行为三者的互动愈加增强,个体的生活方式选择会改变空间对行为的制约,导致相似社会经济属性和空间背景的居民行为模式有明显差异,并影响个体对空间政策的应对,因而需要在行为研究中增加生活方式的视角(Scheiner, 2010; Fan et al, 2012; Zhang et al, 2014; van Acker et al, 2016)。生活方式视角下的时空行为研究强调深入理解生活方式对个体行为差异的影响机制,从而为交通与空间规划提供需求分析的基础。
本文综述了国内外生活方式视角下的时空行为研究进展,首先,从生活方式的相关理论、时间地理学和活动分析法的理论出发,对生活方式与时空行为关系的理论概念进行辨析;其次,系统介绍这一研究领域的2个核心问题,即生活方式的定量测量和基于生活方式群体的时空行为机制分析与解读;最后,指出生活方式视角下的时空行为研究对理解中国城市社会与空间重构的复杂性与多样性具有重要意义,旨在介绍和总结这一研究领域的前沿与方向,为中国城市时空行为研究提供一个新的视角。
生活方式的概念源自心理学家Alfred Adler和社会学家Max Weber、Thorsten Veblen、Pierre Bourdieu,并在学者们对现代性和个人主义的讨论中得以深化(Beck, 1992; van Acker et al, 2016)。生活方式的理论探讨主要集中于社会学领域,特别是在社会学家对阶层、阶级和生活领域的探讨中运用十分广泛。有学者提出当今社会存在阶层和社会地位之外的新的横向分异,而这种横向分异是由生活方式的概念体现的(Beck, 1992; Scheiner, 2010)。
此后,生活方式概念广泛应用于住房、健康、消费等研究领域。在这些领域中,生活方式概念被认为是实用主义而非理论性的(van Acker et al, 2016)。学者往往应用各类指标对生活方式进行测度,但没有对其本质意义和影响机制进行深入探讨。例如,行为兴趣态度测试(AIOs)、价值观与生活方式测量(VALS)等方法广泛用于划分生活方式类型,进而应用于住房子市场划分、营销策略制定、健康风险分析等领域。
1977年,Reichman(1977)将生活方式的概念引入出行研究,将生活方式看作是“对于社会经济条件和深层的个体或者社会的态度、角色或者价值观的周期性行为反馈”。有学者区分了生活方式及其表现,指出生活方式代表了个体的观点、态度和生活导向等,与工作、家庭、休闲、消费等密切相关(Salomon et al, 1983; van Acker et al, 2010),同时生活方式可通过个体可观察的行为模式进行表达(引自van Acker et al, 2016),具体的表达方式可以包括居住、活动和出行行为等(van Acker et al, 2010)。因此,从这一意义上讲,生活方式可以通过行为进行定量分析,以理解行为背后深层次的态度和导向。
时间地理学关注个体生活的连续性,从长期行为—短期行为互动关系的角度,构建了对于长期生命路径选择和日常行为之间的关系,用于分析社会变迁的微观影响。Hägerstrand(1970)认为,生命事件的分析需要强调其关联性和时序性,因而用路径的概念来表示一个人不同时间尺度上在其日常计划安排与受到的时空制约双重作用下的连续经历变化(Pred, 1981b; Lenntorp, 2004)。这一概念通过将人的活动置于自身活动序列和活动地点背景中,允许将看似不相关的活动和事件作为一个整体进行分析表达,以理解城市社会中个体行为特征的机制。
时间地理学从生命路径—日路径辩证关系(the life path-daily path dialectic)的角度,认为日常生活的细节是植根于过去的个人路径和生活计划安排中,同时也是未来的路径和企划形成的潜在基础(Pred, 1981b),因而应在不同时间尺度上将社会经济制度与个人的日常生活结合起来分析。Pred(1981b)认为,一个人的生命史通常是长期社会角色的覆盖与继承,这些角色往往与其家庭和教育背景等相关,会导致个体特殊的日常行为,并且使该个体能在日常生活为寻找和确定未来新的社会角色奠定基础;同时,在日常路径中,一个人能了解到社会赋予他的各种机会,因而在日常路径的相互作用中寻找到长期的社会角色(Pred, 1981b; Thrift et al, 1981)。这一辩证关系意味着一个人之前的社会角色及其日常计划安排的参与和社会对他开放的机会之间存在辩证关系。
从生命路径—日路径辩证关系出发,生活方式对日常行为具有重要的制约作用。日常行为是植根于过去的特定时间、地点的行为与社会的相互作用之中,表现出明显的空间约束、累积的时间效应和深刻的制度制约。Pred(1981a)将时间地理学与结构化理论相结合,运用时间地理学方法分析日常行为的长期变化过程,在不同时间尺度上将社会经济制度与个人的日常生活结合起来分析。同时,日常行为具有明显的例行化倾向,在时间扩展上再生产了长期行为实践,作为个体社会生活连续性的内在组成部分或者整个社会运行的根基(Giddens, 1984)。为辩证地看待时间地理学的理论框架,Giddens(1984)提出日常生活在正常情况下包含着本体性安全,使得个人在日常生活中遵循着例行化的活动路径,而个体在沿着日常活动路径前进的同时,在时间扩展上再生产了长期确立的实践。因此,一旦某种活动成为生活方式的一部分,它就会因为社会网络、社会规则、文化制度以及其他时空因素而稳定下来。
如何描述和解释城市中的生活方式——人们如何完成不同的日常事务、扮演不同的角色并具有自己独特的态度是活动模式研究中的核心问题(Chapin Jr, 1974)。活动分析法对这一研究的主要贡献在于将生活方式概念正式引入时空行为研究中,并提出了生活方式与社会结构和日常行为的相互关系。
生活方式决定于个体对于其作为家庭成员、就业者和休闲消费者角色的导向态度和可能利用的资源限制,进而在不同时间尺度影响个体和家庭的日常行为决策,并形成了相对稳定的日常行为模式。以Ben Akiva为代表的学者相继建立了不同的基于生活方式的日常行为层次决策模型(图1),住房和生活方式选择,例如迁居、就业、汽车所有权等,往往呈现出不规则、低频率的特征;而活动和出行的日程安排则更加频繁和具有规律性,其重复周期一般在“日”或者“周”的尺度上,包括选择活动、安排参与成员、顺序安排、地点选择和出行次数与方式(Ben-Akiva et al, 1996; Ben-Akiva et al, 1998)。在日常生活行为的层次决策过程中,生活方式作为一种长期决策,具有较高的优先级和决定地位,通过行为态度、认知地图、资源制约等途径限定了社会生活和日常生活的行为选择(Gärling et al, 1994)。个体的日常生活受到生活方式作用下的长期日常安排、认知地图和家庭资源的影响,同时还受到每天的活动计划、构成活动与出行环境的各种城市机会和可用资源的限制,因而形成了生活方式在每一天日常生活中的行为表达。反之,日常出行以及作为媒介的中期决策都是为满足长期生活方式决策的需要作出的(Salomon et al, 1983),并通过预期的效应来反馈作用于生活方式(Ruiter et al, 1978; Scheiner et al, 2003)。
图1 活动分析法关于生活方式与日常行为关系的框架
Fig.1 Framework of interactions between lifestyle and daily behavior in activity-based approach
总体而言,社会学的生活方式理论、时间地理学和活动分析法为生活方式与时空行为的相互关系奠定了理论基础。随着时间地理学和活动分析法在交通出行研究中的广泛影响,生活方式的概念越来越多地被学者应用于行为研究,以理解交通政策和土地利用规划对不同类型群体的潜在差异性影响。
生活方式视角下的时空行为研究核心之一就是对生活方式进行定量测量,划分生活方式群体类型以指导行为模式分异的分析。一般来说,行为研究中对于生活方式群体类型的划分通常利用定量化的指标区分具有相似生活方式类型的人群,常用的方法包括专家打分法和聚类方法(van Acker et al, 2016)。划分生活方式群体类型的指标应能够反映“人们面对其他人时的社会性表现”(Scheiner, 2010; van Acker et al, 2016),使用的指标主要可以分为社会统计分类指标(例如年龄、收入、性别等)(Salomon et al, 1983; Hildebrand, 2003)、心理与文化分类指标(例如价值观、态度等)(van Acker et al, 2016)、地理空间分类指标(例如居住区、工作地等)(van Diepen et al, 2009)、日常行为分类指标(例如出行距离、出行次数等)(Krizek et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2009)。但是从目前的发展阶段而言,在行为研究领域,大多数生活方式的测度对于心理与文化的涉及较少。
早期,生活方式的测量更加关注社会—人口统计学的差异,将生活方式看作为更广义的家庭属性,采用个人和家庭社会经济和人口统计学特征来测量。一般来说,生命周期阶段被看作是个体社会角色、年龄和家庭规模的指标,收入代表可利用资源,居住区位关系到城市机会的可达性(Kitamura, 2009)。因此,基于这一理解出发的生活方式测量一般采用的指标包括家庭结构、工作参与、住房类型等。例如,Salomon等(1983)以家庭结构、劳动力市场参与、休闲导向(具体为教育水平和家庭白领阶层比例)区分了5类生活方式,即：重视家庭的就业者、上层阶级、年轻群体、低收入或低教育群体、老年群体;Hildebrand(2003)在对荷兰阿姆斯特丹的老年人出行行为进行研究时,使用个人属性数据将老年人分成了6类生活方式群体,即：工人、到处迁居的寡居女性、独居小屋的老人、移动性障碍者、富有的男性和残疾的司机。van Diepen等(2009)在此基础上,提出了城市连接度的概念,从经济和社会2个维度上用居民生活方式的类型表征个体生活的城市性特征,构建了城市连接度连续谱,并且提出这种生活方式是随着家庭类型的变化而改变的。但是这一分类标准在近年来受到批判,学者认为这一方法难以反映人们对自己生活的选择,仅仅表现了社会属性与生命周期的关系。
直到1990年代,生活方式在行为研究领域才开始作为价值、态度、认知、休闲行为和消费这样的概念被接受,代表了个体对于其活动和出行决策的偏好(Lin et al, 2009)。但是到目前为止,研究者面临的主要问题依旧是：生活方式、态度、价值观等问题在交通调查、活动日志调查等行为数据中很少有体现。因此,研究往往仅能将生活方式看作是一种行为类型学定义来看待,假设可观察到的行为反映了内在心理导向。
从时间地理学和活动分析法的理论出发,近期生活方式的测量方法更加强调将社会—人口统计学、空间因素与日常行为结合对生活方式进行测度,强调日常行为的社会意义(Etminani-Ghasrodashti et al, 2015; van Acker et al, 2016)。但并非所有的日常行为指标都可用来进行生活方式的测度,在研究中使用的指标需要能够表现出“个体对家庭、工作、休闲和消费等的态度或导向”(van Acker et al, 2016)。学者选用的日常行为指标一般包括休闲偏好、活动空间、时间利用(工作、家庭、休闲等主要类型)、常用交通方式、出行次数等,用于代表个体在城市空间利用、不同社会角色上的时间分配,对休闲和消费的态度等。例如,Krizek等(2002)建立了一个家庭生活方式的框架,包括出行行为属性、活动频率、汽车所有权和城市形态4个家庭决策维度,通过在美国的实证研究区分了9类生活方式,即：退休者、单身繁忙的城市居民、老年居家男性、高收入城市居民、公交使用者、郊区通勤者、家庭和活动导向者、郊区双职工家庭、远郊家庭通勤者;Lin等(2009)使用2002年香港出行调查数据,基于个体特征、日常活动特征、出行特征和邻里特征发现了6类生活方式群体,即：以家为中心的人、照料家庭的人、自由活动参与者、乘坐公共交通出行的人、具有规律出行模式的人、高收入居民;van Acker等(2014)应用100多个假期活动、文学兴趣和休闲活动相关的变量,区分了文化爱好者、重视朋友和潮流的人、关注低成本和创造性的人、家庭导向但活跃的人、家庭导向下传统的人等5类群体;塔娜等(2015)利用北京上地—清河地区居民活动日志数据,运用活动空间和出行次数,区分了5类生活方式群体,包括：“空间排斥”“本地化”“郊区性”“两极化”“城市依赖”等。
当然,也有一些学者借鉴了社会心理学的方法,更加强调生活方式的内在特征,在行为与社会经济变量的基础上,引入感知、态度变量进行分析(Bagley et al, 2002; van Acker et al, 2014),可作为生活方式视角下时空行为研究的新方向。例如Scheiner(2010)利用休闲偏好、价值观和生活目的、审美态度、社会交往频率分析生活方式类型;Walker等(2007)结合态度指标和居住区位,得到了3类生活方式群体,即：开车出行的郊区居民、乘坐公交车的居民和开车出行的中心城区居民。
表1 生活方式类型聚类指标
Tab.1 Cluster index of lifestyle groups
| 文献 | 社会—人口统计因素： 个人与家庭 | 空间因素：住房和社区 | 日常行 为因素 | 心理与文化因素 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salomon et al, 1983 | + | |||
| Bagley et al, 2002 | +* | + | ||
| Krizek et al, 2002 | + | + | + | |
| Hildebrand, 2003 | + | |||
| Krizek, 2006 | + | + | ||
| Walker et al, 2007 | + | + | ||
| van Diepen et al, 2009 | + | |||
| Lin et al, 2009 | + | + | + | |
| Scheiner, 2010 | + | |||
| van Acker et al, 2014 | +* | +* | ||
| Etminani-Ghasrodashti et al, 2015 | + | |||
| 塔娜等, 2015 | + |
总体而言,在目前的行为研究中,生活方式往往通过行为模式、家庭背景、劳动力市场参与、居住地和休闲导向进行划分,表1总结了部分研究的指标选择。学者希望借助生活方式的概念打破原有的城市生活与郊区生活的二元划分,理解城市居民的多元化特征,进而再发现不同生活方式带来的行为差异,并对这一差异进行解释。
生活方式对活动模式、活动空间的大小和结构、出行距离等有重要的影响。相关研究从活动分析法的观点出发,常运用回归模型、SEM模型、嵌套logit模型等,将生活方式群体类型作为自变量之一,分析生活方式对于个体日常活动的作用机制,主要从出行需求模式(Salomon et al, 1983; Scheiner, 2010)、活动参与模式(Ben-Akiva et al, 1998)、能源需求与碳排放等方面(Weber et al, 2000)进行深入探讨。
国外研究发现,具有共同生活方式的群体成员会有相似的活动安排和出行行为特征,而使用生活方式群体(lifestyle group)这一概念的分类方法能有效地分析不同居民之间的行为差异。Bagley等(2002)在对美国旧金山居民的出行研究中,区分了冒险者、对文化艺术追求的人、拥有某项爱好的人、家庭照料者、家庭供养者、户外活动狂热者和放松倾向者等7类生活方式群体,并运用结构方程模型进行分析,发现生活方式和态度对于交通方式限定下的出行距离有最显著的影响;Hildebrand(2003)对美国波特兰老年人的研究发现,不同生活方式类型的群体之间在日常活动时间利用上具有显著的差异;Schwanen等(2005)对美国旧金山的研究发现,“追求社会地位”和“工作狂”这样一些因素会对出行距离有正向的影响;Ohnmacht等(2009)在瑞士的研究中发现,生活方式对于休闲出行距离有影响;van Acker等(2014)的研究发现,不同生活方式群体之间在出行方式选择和是否购买汽车方面有显著差异。因此,学者们认为,个体日常时空行为的差异不仅受到社会经济属性和城市空间的影响,而且受到生活方式的强烈制约。
国内学者在时间地理学和行为地理学框架下,通过对长期行为与短期行为关系的分析从侧面印证了生活方式对日常行为的影响。一些研究通过比较迁居前后的日常出行,分析长期行为对居民的职住关系、通勤行为、非工作活动的影响。研究表明,迁居、就业等长期行为决策对于居民的日常行为具有一定的锁定效应,而且受个人的社会经济属性直接影响(冯健等, 2004; 郑思齐等, 2009; 周素红等, 2010)。近期的研究更加重视从纵向变化的视角,分析长期尺度城市空间变化导致的日常行为改变。例如,李斐然等(2013)通过对北京回龙观居民10年来生活空间的分析,解释了郊区化对居民日常生活的影响机制;蔡嘉璐等(2011)通过对南京东路消费者行为7年间变化的比较,解释了空间设计变化对购物行为的影响。上述研究都从较长的时间空间尺度分析了城市社会空间格局变化与个体—家庭因素变化对日常行为的影响,致力于将长期尺度的城市宏观因素和长期行为与日常尺度的个体行为相结合,从一定程度上反映了中国城市转型背景下城市化与城市发展对个体生活方式的影响,但并未深入分析居民生活方式的变化。另外一些研究则强调不同群体的时空行为差异,将生活方式作为行为差异的一个解释因素,用于分析中国城市社会空间转型。例如,申悦等(2013)在北京市亦庄和天通苑的研究发现,郊区居民工作日的活动空间在中心城区空间0%~60%的范围内呈正态分布,而且这一比例受到个人社会经济因素和空间因素的显著影响;塔娜等(2015)在北京上地—清河地区的研究也发现,不同生活方式群体之间在出行距离、出行方式、时间利用等方面存在显著差异。
本文从时间地理学和活动分析法的理论出发,综述了生活方式视角下的时空行为研究在国内外的进展。生活方式作为一种个体对自己社会地位的长期认同,将其与自我生活经历的思考和日常行为的实践联系起来,为解释个体时空行为提供了有效的框架。无论是时间地理学的长短期行为关系还是活动分析法的生活方式概念模型,学者普遍认同生活方式对日常行为起到了决定性作用,反之日常行为也是生活方式的外在表现。特别在社会经济快速发展、物质日益丰富的情况下,居民根据自己所占有的资源选择个性化生活的机会增加。原来社会经济属性的分化已不能满足对日常行为理解的需求,基于生活方式群体的行为模式分析方法开始成为研究的热点。近年来,中国城市发展的核心目标逐步向社会管理的精细化与居民生活质量的提升转变(柴彦威等, 2013; 宁越敏, 2014),中国城市社会空间的研究热点正从整体描述转向对社会问题的机制解释,微观尺度的群体与个体分析开始显示出其有效性(方创琳等, 2011; 秦萧等, 2013)。特别是随着生活水平的提高,居民对个性化行为、高质量生活的追求越来越迫切。在此背景下,对中国城市居民时空行为的理解也需要更多地考虑不同群体在生活方式上的差异,分析生活方式对个体时空行为的限制和决定作用,以更好地指导城市研究与规划。
从理论发展的角度也应认识到,生活方式与时空行为的关系并非一成不变。特别是从时间地理学的视角出发,长期生活经历的改变会对个体的日常轨迹产生影响,而日常行为中接触的各种机会也会影响未来生活方式的变迁(Pred, 1981a, 1981b)。城市中观察到的大多数日常生活都是植根于家庭和工作的例行化特征(Hägerstrand, 1982; Giddens, 1984),而这些因素是与城市的社会经济制度、建成环境特征密切相关的。因此,收入的增加、工作时间的缩短、消费技术的革新等都会对城市居民的生活方式演进产生影响,进而改变生活方式与时空行为的作用方式(Kitamura, 2009)。因此,生活方式的演进对城市时空结构的影响是未来时空行为研究的一个重要方面。但由于纵向数据有限,特别是包含生活方式相关信息的纵向数据欠缺,目前对于生活方式动态演进与时空行为关系的研究还处于理论探讨阶段。
而从实践应用角度,基于生活方式的时空行为模拟也是未来值得深入研究的问题。时空行为对城市空间的分析不仅要理解运行机制,也需要能够对城市空间进行定量评估、对未来进行一定程度的预测,以支撑城市规划的需要。作为影响日常行为模式的重要因素,生活方式的演进将带来日常行为模式的改变(Kitamura, 2009)。因而,如何通过设定不同生活方式类型情境(如家庭导向、低碳导向、休闲导向等),运用离散选择模型、多智能体模型等方法来模拟个体或群体的时空行为变化,是推动时空行为研究规划应用的重要方面。同时,生活方式视角下的时空行为研究目前还有待完善,需要未来进行更加深入的实证研究。首先,由于一直以来交通政策导向的研究占主体,生活方式测度的日常行为指标往往以出行为主,对于活动—移动结合的指标体系强调较少。其次,生活方式对时空行为的作用机制研究尚处于起步阶段,多数研究以简单的统计分析和回归分析为主,虽部分研究已开始运用复杂模型分析,但对其作用机制的分析和解释尚需进一步加强。最后,生活方式作为一种价值、态度的维度,长期以来受到忽视,需要更新行为调查方法,增加对于生活方式内在属性的考量。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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Study on changes of consumer behavior in east Nanjing Road: A comparison of the year 2001 and 2007 [J].URL 摘要
本文通过比较2001年与2007年消费者行为数据，揭示出6年问南京东路消费者行为特征的变化。消费者属性的变化主要在于：消费者的年龄年轻化；居住地非本地化；整体收入水平略降低。消费者非空间活动的变化有：观光旅游休闲目的的消费者增多；路上时间明显缩短；消费者总体收入水平升高，但总开支降低；平均消费额降低，零消费比重增大，中高消费比例明显减少，年轻人的平均花费减少。消费者空间活动特征的变化主要在于：主要入口由原来的两个新增为三个；步行街西端总消费额和总人流密集的“三角区”消失，密集中心向中部转移；人均消费额的空间分布呈均质化态势；人均消费最高的地块从专业商店所在地块，转移到百货公司所在地块。本文最后通过变化系统分析图总结了消费者行为变化及其与宏观商业背景变化之间的关系。
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自时间地理学和活动分析法引入中国以来的近20年间,时空间行为研究已经成为中国城市地理学的重要领域。中国时空间行为研究关注城市空间重构的描述与解释,试图从行为角度解释中国城市社会转型,强调转型期中国城市空间与居民个体行为之间的互动关系,重视日常生活、生活质量、社会公正、低碳社会、智慧城市等热点问题,探索在城市交通、旅游和城市规划等领域中的实践应用。中国时空间行为研究已经形成了以解读城市转型为目标、以规划应用为导向的鲜明特点,为理解中国城市制度与空间转型背景下人类行为模式的复杂性和多样性提供了一个全新的视角。但是,中国时空间行为研究依然面临着理论发展滞后、实践应用需要突破等挑战。本文是对时空行为研究近年来发展的综述性文章,从数据采集与分析方法演进、实证研究与规划应用进展等方面回顾了近20年来中国城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,致力于推动不同学科领域之间的交流和时空间行为研究自身的发展。
Progress in space-time behavior research in China [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.09.006 Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
自时间地理学和活动分析法引入中国以来的近20年间,时空间行为研究已经成为中国城市地理学的重要领域。中国时空间行为研究关注城市空间重构的描述与解释,试图从行为角度解释中国城市社会转型,强调转型期中国城市空间与居民个体行为之间的互动关系,重视日常生活、生活质量、社会公正、低碳社会、智慧城市等热点问题,探索在城市交通、旅游和城市规划等领域中的实践应用。中国时空间行为研究已经形成了以解读城市转型为目标、以规划应用为导向的鲜明特点,为理解中国城市制度与空间转型背景下人类行为模式的复杂性和多样性提供了一个全新的视角。但是,中国时空间行为研究依然面临着理论发展滞后、实践应用需要突破等挑战。本文是对时空行为研究近年来发展的综述性文章,从数据采集与分析方法演进、实证研究与规划应用进展等方面回顾了近20年来中国城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,致力于推动不同学科领域之间的交流和时空间行为研究自身的发展。
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本文重点总结了近年来人地关系论、文化地理学、行为地理学、社会地理学和政治地理学等人文地理学的特色分支学科和新兴分支学科的发展现状、研究进展及未来发展展望.通过对国内大量的文献分析和与国外相关研究进展的比较分析后认为,中国人文地理学在理论创新、研究方法、手段革新和实践应用等方面均取得了丰硕的研究成果.表现为:人地关系论作为地理学研究核心的地位得到进一步提升;文化地理研究视野更为开阔,并在转向新文化地理学;行为地理学进入了重要的研究转向与繁荣发展新阶段;政治地理学顺应地缘政治战略需求开始由低迷走向回暖;社会地理学伴随和谐社会建设蓬勃发展.未来中国人文地理学研究的总体趋势是,面向国家战略需求,树立人地和谐的科学发展观,紧跟中国经济社会发展的时代步伐,在力所能及地解决国家发展中若干新问题的同时,重点深化人地关系理论及研究方法,加强人地系统调控机理与过程、格局与节律及其示范应用的研究,加强人地系统演进过程中的全球问题、全球变化及其区域响应的研究;顺应国家文化产业大发展和建设文化强国的战略要求,加强文化地理研究与国家文化产业振兴的融合研究,建设中国“本土化”的文化地理学学科体系;进一步拓展行为地理学研究广度与深度,加强实验性研究;关注新地缘政治学、都市政治地理和地方政治地理的研究,依托“六普”数据推动社会地理学研究实现新的跨越.通过上述研究,进一步推动中国人文地理学健康持续稳定发展.
Updated progress and perspectives of the discipline of human geography in China [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2011.12.002 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
本文重点总结了近年来人地关系论、文化地理学、行为地理学、社会地理学和政治地理学等人文地理学的特色分支学科和新兴分支学科的发展现状、研究进展及未来发展展望.通过对国内大量的文献分析和与国外相关研究进展的比较分析后认为,中国人文地理学在理论创新、研究方法、手段革新和实践应用等方面均取得了丰硕的研究成果.表现为:人地关系论作为地理学研究核心的地位得到进一步提升;文化地理研究视野更为开阔,并在转向新文化地理学;行为地理学进入了重要的研究转向与繁荣发展新阶段;政治地理学顺应地缘政治战略需求开始由低迷走向回暖;社会地理学伴随和谐社会建设蓬勃发展.未来中国人文地理学研究的总体趋势是,面向国家战略需求,树立人地和谐的科学发展观,紧跟中国经济社会发展的时代步伐,在力所能及地解决国家发展中若干新问题的同时,重点深化人地关系理论及研究方法,加强人地系统调控机理与过程、格局与节律及其示范应用的研究,加强人地系统演进过程中的全球问题、全球变化及其区域响应的研究;顺应国家文化产业大发展和建设文化强国的战略要求,加强文化地理研究与国家文化产业振兴的融合研究,建设中国“本土化”的文化地理学学科体系;进一步拓展行为地理学研究广度与深度,加强实验性研究;关注新地缘政治学、都市政治地理和地方政治地理的研究,依托“六普”数据推动社会地理学研究实现新的跨越.通过上述研究,进一步推动中国人文地理学健康持续稳定发展.
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郊区化进程中北京城市内部迁居及相关空间行为: 基于千份问卷调查的分析 [J].
<p>利用千份问卷调查资料 ,研究居住郊区化进程中北京城市居民的迁居行为、第二住宅与季节性郊区化 ,以及包括通勤、出行和购物等在内的相关空间行为。研究表明 ,北京本地城市化和近郊化的特征明显 ,单位福利分房和原居住地拆迁是居民迁居的主要原因 ,居民职住分离现象十分普遍 ,传统单位制下职住合一的空间格局已被打破 ;城市第二住宅多用于商业出租等用途 ,表现出一定程度的季节性郊区化特点 ,但尚未达到规模集聚的程度 ;在居住郊区化的进程中 ,北京城市居民的通勤、出行和购物等空间行为均有一定程度的变化。</p>
Intra-urban migration and correlative spatial behavior in Beijing in the process of suburbanization: Based on 1000 questionnaires [J].
<p>利用千份问卷调查资料 ,研究居住郊区化进程中北京城市居民的迁居行为、第二住宅与季节性郊区化 ,以及包括通勤、出行和购物等在内的相关空间行为。研究表明 ,北京本地城市化和近郊化的特征明显 ,单位福利分房和原居住地拆迁是居民迁居的主要原因 ,居民职住分离现象十分普遍 ,传统单位制下职住合一的空间格局已被打破 ;城市第二住宅多用于商业出租等用途 ,表现出一定程度的季节性郊区化特点 ,但尚未达到规模集聚的程度 ;在居住郊区化的进程中 ,北京城市居民的通勤、出行和购物等空间行为均有一定程度的变化。</p>
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基于活动类型的郊区大型居住区居民生活空间重构: 以回龙观为例 [J].URL 摘要
本文基于550份调查问卷和第一手的访谈资料,以北京著名的郊区大型居住区——回龙观文化居住区为研究对象,探讨了包括居住空间、工作空间、购物空间和游憩空间在内的郊区大型居住区生活空间重构的特征与机制,分析了居民生活空间重构与郊区化的关系。研究表明,近10年来,居民对远距离居住—工作空间错位有较强的承受能力,以回龙观为代表的郊区大型居住区在形成居住空间郊区化、商业和休闲空间的分散化和多中心化方面发挥了重要作用,也验证了过去10年中北京郊区化发展的高强力度。回龙观社区职能由单纯卧城向综合型社区的演变成为居民多种生活空间重构的背景,另外,不同类型的生活空间之间相互联系,某种生活空间变化往往导致另一种或几种生活空间跟随发生变化。回龙观的案例给郊区的城市规划工作带来一定的启示。
The life time and space reconfiguration of residents in large communities in the context of suburbanization: A case study of Huilongguan [J].URL 摘要
本文基于550份调查问卷和第一手的访谈资料,以北京著名的郊区大型居住区——回龙观文化居住区为研究对象,探讨了包括居住空间、工作空间、购物空间和游憩空间在内的郊区大型居住区生活空间重构的特征与机制,分析了居民生活空间重构与郊区化的关系。研究表明,近10年来,居民对远距离居住—工作空间错位有较强的承受能力,以回龙观为代表的郊区大型居住区在形成居住空间郊区化、商业和休闲空间的分散化和多中心化方面发挥了重要作用,也验证了过去10年中北京郊区化发展的高强力度。回龙观社区职能由单纯卧城向综合型社区的演变成为居民多种生活空间重构的背景,另外,不同类型的生活空间之间相互联系,某种生活空间变化往往导致另一种或几种生活空间跟随发生变化。回龙观的案例给郊区的城市规划工作带来一定的启示。
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中国推进新型城镇化战略的思考 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-8985.2014.01.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
随着中国进入快速城镇化时期，传统城镇化道路逐渐显露出一系列的弊端。在国际形势与国内发展的推动下，城镇化转型发展成为必然，新型城镇化的概念也应运而生，并日益成为新时期关注的焦点和热点。推进新型城镇化应以新型工业化为基础，加快经济发展，提供城镇化发展新动力；以人为本，促进社会融合，建设包容性城市，推进基本公共服务均等化；推进生态文明，建设美丽中国，实现可持续发展的城镇化；推进体制创新，关注小城镇发展，提升小城镇发展活力。
Re-thinking the development strategy of new-type urbanization in China [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-8985.2014.01.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
随着中国进入快速城镇化时期，传统城镇化道路逐渐显露出一系列的弊端。在国际形势与国内发展的推动下，城镇化转型发展成为必然，新型城镇化的概念也应运而生，并日益成为新时期关注的焦点和热点。推进新型城镇化应以新型工业化为基础，加快经济发展，提供城镇化发展新动力；以人为本，促进社会融合，建设包容性城市，推进基本公共服务均等化；推进生态文明，建设美丽中国，实现可持续发展的城镇化；推进体制创新，关注小城镇发展，提升小城镇发展活力。
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大数据时代城市时空间行为研究方法 [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.09.005 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
信息技术的快速发展带来了“大数据”时代的到来,改变了城市的空间组织和居民行为,并使得城市时空间行为研究方法面临变革。本文在总结传统城市时空间行为研究方法存在问题的基础上,对影响其变革的数据获取与处理技术进行梳理,重点从居民时空行为、城市空间及城市等级体系3个方面综述了国内外应用大数据进行城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,构建了基于大数据应用的城市时空间行为研究方法框架。本文认为,大数据时代城市时空间行为研究方法的变革主要取决于对反映居民时空行为的网络或移动信息设备数据的挖掘、处理及应用,但是还需要进一步推动相关学科间的交叉与融合,加强社交网站等网络数据在居民时空行为和城市空间研究中的应用,并指导城市规划编制与管理方法的创新。
Methods in urban temporal and spatial behavior research in the big data era [J].https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.09.005 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
信息技术的快速发展带来了“大数据”时代的到来,改变了城市的空间组织和居民行为,并使得城市时空间行为研究方法面临变革。本文在总结传统城市时空间行为研究方法存在问题的基础上,对影响其变革的数据获取与处理技术进行梳理,重点从居民时空行为、城市空间及城市等级体系3个方面综述了国内外应用大数据进行城市时空间行为研究的最新进展,构建了基于大数据应用的城市时空间行为研究方法框架。本文认为,大数据时代城市时空间行为研究方法的变革主要取决于对反映居民时空行为的网络或移动信息设备数据的挖掘、处理及应用,但是还需要进一步推动相关学科间的交叉与融合,加强社交网站等网络数据在居民时空行为和城市空间研究中的应用,并指导城市规划编制与管理方法的创新。
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基于GPS数据的北京市郊区巨型社区居民日常活动空间 [J].Magsci 摘要
在城市快速郊区化的过程中,北京市兴建了大规模的郊区经济适用房居住区和郊区新城,形成了特有的郊区居住和日常生活空间。由于这些郊区巨型社区周边配套设施和就业岗位的不足,造成了社区居民的长距离通勤,激化了北京市交通拥堵、职住空间错位等城市问题,也降低了居民的生活质量。伴随着人文地理学中的行为转向,时空间行为已成为透视城市空间的重要视角,行为论方法中的活动空间作为城市社会空间研究的重要测度,受到国内外学者的关注,而国内已有的活动空间研究往往基于传统问卷调查数据利用密度插值法从汇总的角度进行分析,忽略了居民的个体差异性。本研究利用2010 年基于GPS的北京市活动与出行调查数据,以天通苑和亦庄两个郊区巨型社区为例,采用GIS 空间分析和标准置信椭圆法,从非汇总角度对郊区居民的整日活动空间进行测度,并在居民活动空间叠加分析的基础上,研究北京市郊区巨型社区居民工作日和休息日的日常活动空间及其对城区空间和案例社区附近空间的利用情况,挖掘工作日居民对城区空间利用的影响因素,从而透视中国大城市郊区化存在的问题。
Daily activity space of suburban mega-community residents in Beijing based on GPS data [J].Magsci 摘要
在城市快速郊区化的过程中,北京市兴建了大规模的郊区经济适用房居住区和郊区新城,形成了特有的郊区居住和日常生活空间。由于这些郊区巨型社区周边配套设施和就业岗位的不足,造成了社区居民的长距离通勤,激化了北京市交通拥堵、职住空间错位等城市问题,也降低了居民的生活质量。伴随着人文地理学中的行为转向,时空间行为已成为透视城市空间的重要视角,行为论方法中的活动空间作为城市社会空间研究的重要测度,受到国内外学者的关注,而国内已有的活动空间研究往往基于传统问卷调查数据利用密度插值法从汇总的角度进行分析,忽略了居民的个体差异性。本研究利用2010 年基于GPS的北京市活动与出行调查数据,以天通苑和亦庄两个郊区巨型社区为例,采用GIS 空间分析和标准置信椭圆法,从非汇总角度对郊区居民的整日活动空间进行测度,并在居民活动空间叠加分析的基础上,研究北京市郊区巨型社区居民工作日和休息日的日常活动空间及其对城区空间和案例社区附近空间的利用情况,挖掘工作日居民对城区空间利用的影响因素,从而透视中国大城市郊区化存在的问题。
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北京郊区居民日常生活方式的行为测度与空间: 行为互动 [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201508007 Magsci 摘要
<p>郊区化及其对居民日常生活的影响成为近年来城市研究的重要议题。时空行为研究认为推动日常生活方式的郊区化是解决郊区化过程中出现的社会与空间问题的根本措施。从日常生活方式的角度出发,需要利用多维度时空行为指标刻画群体的生活方式类型以分析郊区居民的空间—行为互动机制。本文采用活动空间和出行频率指标构建个体日常生活方式的行为测度方法,并基于2012年在北京上地—清河地区进行的GPS调查数据将郊区居民划分为“空间排斥”、“本地化”、“郊区性”、“两极化”、“城市依赖”五种日常生活方式类型。研究发现不同日常生活方式群体在活动分布、活动频率和交通方式上存在差异;并通过多项logistic模型分析郊区化对于个体日常生活方式的影响,发现工作日居民的日常生活方式受到性别、收入、年龄和工作时长等社会经济属性的影响。同时郊区设施配置直接影响着居民对郊区空间的利用程度,土地混合利用、商业设施密度提高更有可能实现日常生活的郊区化。日常生活方式的行为测度方法有助于分析郊区居民日常行为的复杂性,为理解郊区化提供了独特的视角,为构建城市研究的空间—行为互动理论提供了有力的支持。</p>
Suburbanization, daily lifestyle and space-behavior interaction in Beijing [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201508007 Magsci 摘要
<p>郊区化及其对居民日常生活的影响成为近年来城市研究的重要议题。时空行为研究认为推动日常生活方式的郊区化是解决郊区化过程中出现的社会与空间问题的根本措施。从日常生活方式的角度出发,需要利用多维度时空行为指标刻画群体的生活方式类型以分析郊区居民的空间—行为互动机制。本文采用活动空间和出行频率指标构建个体日常生活方式的行为测度方法,并基于2012年在北京上地—清河地区进行的GPS调查数据将郊区居民划分为“空间排斥”、“本地化”、“郊区性”、“两极化”、“城市依赖”五种日常生活方式类型。研究发现不同日常生活方式群体在活动分布、活动频率和交通方式上存在差异;并通过多项logistic模型分析郊区化对于个体日常生活方式的影响,发现工作日居民的日常生活方式受到性别、收入、年龄和工作时长等社会经济属性的影响。同时郊区设施配置直接影响着居民对郊区空间的利用程度,土地混合利用、商业设施密度提高更有可能实现日常生活的郊区化。日常生活方式的行为测度方法有助于分析郊区居民日常行为的复杂性,为理解郊区化提供了独特的视角,为构建城市研究的空间—行为互动理论提供了有力的支持。</p>
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居住与就业空间关系的决定机理和影响因素: 对北京市通勤时间和通勤流量的实证研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-3862.2009.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
在中国城市增长和空间重构的过程中,＂居住—就业＂空间关系逐渐由＂职住合一＂向＂职住分离＂演变。基于城市空间结构及区位选择的经典理论和最近的理论创新,结合中国城市的制度环境特点,建立了对通勤时间影响因素进行分析的理论框架,并利用北京市的两套就业者微观样本实证研究了各种制度因素和市场因素（分为就业机会、公共服务设施和住房机会三大类）对通勤时间和通勤流量的影响机理。研究发现：相关理论能够较好地解释北京市的＂居住—就业＂空间关系。工作机会、住房机会和城市公共服务设施的空间布局是影响＂居住—就业＂空间关系和通勤时间的三个重要因素。同时中国城市中特有的历史路径依赖性和制度转型特点,增加了＂居住—就业＂空间关系的复杂性。论文认为,应致力于减少对劳动力自由选址的制度性约束,在促进产业用地充分集聚的同时,调整公共服务设施的空间布局,改变其过度集中于城市中心的现状,同时在交通便捷的区位提供符合当地劳动力住房需求的住房供给。
The determinants of jobs-housing spatial relationship in Beijing [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-3862.2009.06.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
在中国城市增长和空间重构的过程中,＂居住—就业＂空间关系逐渐由＂职住合一＂向＂职住分离＂演变。基于城市空间结构及区位选择的经典理论和最近的理论创新,结合中国城市的制度环境特点,建立了对通勤时间影响因素进行分析的理论框架,并利用北京市的两套就业者微观样本实证研究了各种制度因素和市场因素（分为就业机会、公共服务设施和住房机会三大类）对通勤时间和通勤流量的影响机理。研究发现：相关理论能够较好地解释北京市的＂居住—就业＂空间关系。工作机会、住房机会和城市公共服务设施的空间布局是影响＂居住—就业＂空间关系和通勤时间的三个重要因素。同时中国城市中特有的历史路径依赖性和制度转型特点,增加了＂居住—就业＂空间关系的复杂性。论文认为,应致力于减少对劳动力自由选址的制度性约束,在促进产业用地充分集聚的同时,调整公共服务设施的空间布局,改变其过度集中于城市中心的现状,同时在交通便捷的区位提供符合当地劳动力住房需求的住房供给。
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转型期广州城市居民居住与就业地区位选择的空间关系及其变迁 [J].
<p>近年来,中国城市交通拥挤现象日渐突出,以交通基础设施建设为主导的单一交通供给已经很难满足交通日益增长的需求,交通需求管理成为解决交通拥挤问题的又一出路。因居民居住与就业地空间分离而产生的日常通勤是构成高峰小时交通需求的主要原因。以广州市为例,采用追溯式问卷调查的方式,调查分析1996-2007年居民居住与就业地区位选择与变迁,并探讨其影响因素和机制。研究发现,体制转型对居民居住与就业地选择产生重要的影响,计划经济体制下形成的街区,居民的居住地与就业地相对稳定;市场化改革后新建或改建的街区,居民搬家和换工作的频度较高。在1996-2007年期间,居民居住地与就业地距离总体上呈现增加趋势,以商品房小区最为明显,价格、环境与岗位属性是影响居民搬家和变换工作的主要原因,在与短距离通勤无法兼得的情况下,很多居民选择以长距离通勤为代价换取更好的居住与就业条件。其次,保障性住房政策下形成的典型街区内部居民分化明显,形成原住户、转售后的商品房住户、转租房住户等三类为主导的住户结构,前两者存在较明显的居住与就业空间不匹配现象。此外,区位和个人属性也影响着居民居住与就业地的选择两者的空间距离。在区位方面,城市中心区的就业吸引力仍较突出,靠近中心区的住户居住与就业距离较短,且呈近距离重新择居或择业;由于居住外迁和产业外迁而分别引发的长距离向心型和外向型通勤共同存在,尤其是前者;在个人属性方面,中等收入水平的阶层是搬家和变换工作相对频繁的阶层。宏观层面上城市居住与就业空间的不匹配、城市空间拓展、单一功能外迁下的用地结构、社会经济转型与政策性福利以及阶层分化背景下引发的个性化选择等是影响居民居住地与就业地空间关系的重要原因。</p>
The situation and transition of jobs-housing relocation in Guangzhou, China [J].
<p>近年来,中国城市交通拥挤现象日渐突出,以交通基础设施建设为主导的单一交通供给已经很难满足交通日益增长的需求,交通需求管理成为解决交通拥挤问题的又一出路。因居民居住与就业地空间分离而产生的日常通勤是构成高峰小时交通需求的主要原因。以广州市为例,采用追溯式问卷调查的方式,调查分析1996-2007年居民居住与就业地区位选择与变迁,并探讨其影响因素和机制。研究发现,体制转型对居民居住与就业地选择产生重要的影响,计划经济体制下形成的街区,居民的居住地与就业地相对稳定;市场化改革后新建或改建的街区,居民搬家和换工作的频度较高。在1996-2007年期间,居民居住地与就业地距离总体上呈现增加趋势,以商品房小区最为明显,价格、环境与岗位属性是影响居民搬家和变换工作的主要原因,在与短距离通勤无法兼得的情况下,很多居民选择以长距离通勤为代价换取更好的居住与就业条件。其次,保障性住房政策下形成的典型街区内部居民分化明显,形成原住户、转售后的商品房住户、转租房住户等三类为主导的住户结构,前两者存在较明显的居住与就业空间不匹配现象。此外,区位和个人属性也影响着居民居住与就业地的选择两者的空间距离。在区位方面,城市中心区的就业吸引力仍较突出,靠近中心区的住户居住与就业距离较短,且呈近距离重新择居或择业;由于居住外迁和产业外迁而分别引发的长距离向心型和外向型通勤共同存在,尤其是前者;在个人属性方面,中等收入水平的阶层是搬家和变换工作相对频繁的阶层。宏观层面上城市居住与就业空间的不匹配、城市空间拓展、单一功能外迁下的用地结构、社会经济转型与政策性福利以及阶层分化背景下引发的个性化选择等是影响居民居住地与就业地空间关系的重要原因。</p>
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We present an integrated discrete choice model system of a household's residential location choice and its members' activity and travel schedules. A daily schedule consists of tours, characterised by destinations, times of day and travel modes. The activity and travel models supply the residential model with an accessibility measure for each household member, namely the expected maximum utility among available daily activity schedules, conditioned by the chosen pattern of tours and, for workers, the workplace. A nested logit model system is estimated and applied for Boston. It does not fit the data quite as well as a work-trip-based comparison model, but its predictions capture additional effects attributable to the more comprehensive accessibility measure.
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The emergence of new information technologies and recent advances in existing technologies have provided new dimensions for travel demand decisions. In this paper the authors propose a comprehensive travel demand modeling framework to identify and model the urban development decisions of firms and developers and the mobility, activity and travel decisions of individuals and households, and to develop a system of models that can be used by decision makers and planners to evaluate the effects of changes in the transportation system and development of information technologies (e.g., various tele-commuting, tele-services and Intelligent Transportation Systems). The implementation of an operations model system based on this framework is envisioned as an incremental process starting with the current "best practice" of disaggregate travel demand model systems.
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Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behaviour: A focus on empirical findings [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/01441640902808441 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Empirical studies that include travel‐related attitudes to identify the role of residential self‐selection in the relationship between the built environment and travel behaviour display a wide variety in the type of attitudes that they include, the relationships between the variables that they analyse and the ways they measure attitude. This paper discusses what theories on attitudes and behaviour can contribute to examining the role of self‐selection and reviews those studies on residential self‐selection and travel behaviour that explicitly include attitudes. Although several studies state that residential self‐selection is accounted for by the inclusion of attitudes, the complexity of the inclusion and the measurement of attitudes often leads to an underestimation of the role of residential self‐selection. Because of their relevance to the reliability of results, the options for measuring travel‐related attitudes are also discussed. When attitudes are included in questionnaires, it is essential to consider reliability, efficiency, response and the number of variables.
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What type of vehicle do people drive? The role of attitude and lifestyle in influencing vehicle type choice [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2003.10.005 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This study explores the relationships of consumers' travel attitudes, personality, lifestyle and mobility to their vehicle type choices. A disaggregate choice model of vehicle type based on these factors as well as typical demographic variables is developed. The data for this study comes from a 1998 survey of almost 2,000 residents in the San Francisco Bay Area. The dependent variable (the vehicle type the respondent drives most often) is classified into nine categories: small, compact, mid-sized, large, luxury, sports, minivan/van, pickup and sport utility vehicle. Based on these categories, vehicle type was first related to travel attitude, personality, lifestyle, mobility and demographic variables individually, using one-way analysis of variance and chi-squared tests. Then, a multinomial logit model for vehicle type choice was estimated. The final model confirmed that the variables analyzed significantly affected an individual's vehicle type choice, except for the mid-sized car group.
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Modeling travel behavior by the structural relationships between lifestyle, built environment and non-working trips [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.06.016 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In the context of sustainable urban transport in developing countries, individuals’ travel behavior faces multiple factors which influence their mobility patterns. Recognizing these factors could be a favorable method to organize more regular and sustainable trip patterns. This study aims to identify the less well-known lifestyle along with more popular built environment as the main factors which shape travel behaviors. Employing data from 900 respondents of 22 urban areas in city of Shiraz, Iran, this paper explores travel behaviors as non-working trip frequencies by different modes. Results of structural equation model indicate a strong significant effect of individual’s lifestyle patterns on their non-working trips. However, built environment impact on travel behavior is small compared to lifestyle. Besides, other variables such as travel attitudes and socio-economic factors stay crucial in the mode choice selection. These findings indicate the necessity of regarding lifestyle orientations in travel studies as well as objective factors such as land use attributes.
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Time use patterns, lifestyles, and sustainability of nonwork travel behavior [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2011.553770 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article adds to the limited literature on lifestyles and travel behavior by examining the relationship between nonwork travel and five lifestyle orientations: passive leisure, socializing, family, recreation, and community. Using data from the 2003 American Time Use Survey, we estimate negative binomial models of trip frequency and Tobit models of travel time. Family-oriented lifestyle is found to have the strongest auto dependence while recreation-oriented lifestyle has the weakest. The results indicate that the uphill battle for sustainability may benefit from research that targets travel related to family activities and from policies that promote recreation-oriented lifestyle.
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Computational-process modelling of household activity scheduling [J]. |
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Dimensions in elderly travel behaviour: A simplified activity-based model using lifestyle clusters [J].https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023949330747 Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>The current lack of a detailed description of elderly travel characteristics and behaviours, particularly one that examines the issue at a level involving activity engagement, was a deficiency addressed by this research. Using data from the 1994/95 Portland, Oregon, Household Activity and Stated Preference Survey a simplified activity-based travel model for the elderly was developed and validated. The modelling framework makes use of lifestyle groups which are delineated through advance analyses. The final cluster solution chosen to provide a categorical basis for the modelling framework identified six distinct lifestyle groups based on socio-demographic variables. The clusters were subjectively labelled <i>Workers</i>, <i>Mobile Widows</i>, <i>Granny Flats</i>, <i>Mobility Impaired</i>, <i>Affluent Males</i>, and <i>Disabled Drivers</i>. The clusters were found to have statistically significant differences in travel behaviour and activity engagement patterns. These findings are useful to policy-makers who attempt to balance the mobility needs of the elderly with the prospect for stricter driving license policies in response to traffic safety concerns. The model framework successfully replicated all facets of the base data set used for its development. Using a sequential process, the micro-simulation model employs a bottom-up approach by stochastically developing daily activity itineraries for individuals which are subsequently assembled into trip tours. Elements of travel behaviour synthesized for individuals being modelled included total daily activities (with and without travel), activities engaged in by class (with and without travel), total daily trip tours, and mode splits.The research has shown that a categorical approach using lifestyle groups with unique activity and travel characteristics can be successfully combined within an activity-based framework. Although this approach was applied specifically to the elderly, it can be extended to other heterogeneous groups including the population as a whole. Furthermore, the study has provided a more comprehensive understanding of the varied lifestyles, activity patterns, and subsequent travel behaviour and needs of the elderly.
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Life-style and travel demand [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-009-9244-6 Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>(Added to the original text) A fundamental solution to the issue of congestion cannot be reached without addressing the question of life-style. This paper reviews the definitions of life-style found in the literature, and identifies variables that have been commonly associated with life-style. Using US consumer expenditure data, life-styles are analyzed longitudinally (examining trends during the 1953舑1983 time frame) and cross-sectionally (comparing segments of the population stratified by income, life-cycle stage, and age), and likely relationships to travel behavior are noted. The usefulness of existing empirical findings to long-range forecasting is explored by speculating on shifts of behavioral units across life-style segments, and on shifts in the behavioral patterns within each life-style segment.
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Lifestyles, residential location decisions, and pedestrian and transit activity [J].https://doi.org/10.3141/1981-25 URL 摘要
The idea of using land use patterns to influence people鈥檚 behavior is popular in urban planning circles these days. Activity-based travel modeling has begun to make significant progress toward a more behavioral framework for simulating household travel behavior and understanding, in particular, pedestrian activity. A significant challenge remains in the need to address the interaction of pedestrian use with longer-term household choices of neighborhood choice, other activities, and overall travel. The choices often depend on one another and jointly define the lifestyle of an individual. This paper refines a framework to analyze household choices relating to three dimensions of lifestyle: travel patterns (including pedestrian activity), activity participation, and neighborhood characteristics. Cluster analysis on data from the Twin Cities metropolitan region in Minnesota uncovers seven classifications of lifestyle. These clusters demonstrate empirically how decisions about residential location reinforce and affect daily decisions related to travel patterns, pedestrian and transit use, and activity participation. The final section comments on the applicability of these lifestyle clusters for land use鈥搕ransportation planning.
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Analysis of lifestyle choices: Neighborhood type, travel patterns, and activity participation [J].https://doi.org/10.3141/1807-15 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Activity-based travel modeling has begun to make significant progress toward a more behavioral framework for simulating household travel behavior. A significant challenge remains in the need to address the interaction of daily activity and travel patterns with longer-term household choices of vehicle ownership, residential location, and employment location. The choices often depend on one another and jointly define the lifestyle of the household. These choices are likely to evolve over the course of the life cycle as households are formed; as children are born, raised, and ultimately depart to form their own households; and as retirement and old age change patterns of residence, work, and travel. A framework is developed for analyzing household choices relating to three dimensions of lifestyle: travel patterns (including vehicle ownership), activity participation, and residential location (neighborhood type). With cluster analysis on data from the Puget Sound Transportation Panel, nine classifications of lifestyle are uncovered. These clusters demonstrate empirically how decisions of residential location reinforce and affect daily decisions related to travel patterns and activity participation. The applicability of these lifestyle clusters for land use transportation planning is discussed.
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Visualisation of socio-spatial isolation based on human activity patterns and social networks in space-time [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2010.00649.x Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Few previous studies of socio-spatial isolation have explored both its spatial and temporal dimensions. This study proposes and implemented four visual methods for analysing socio-spatial isolation using graphic representation of people's social networks and activity patterns in space and time: 3D space-time paths, time windows, 3D activity density surfaces, and ring-based visualisation of social networks. These visualisations utilise both activity-travel data and social network information. The data used were collected through a specially designed activity-travel diary survey with a sample of Koreans in the Columbus metropolitan area in Ohio (USA). The results show that these visualisations can considerably enhance our understanding of the relationships between people's activities in space-time and their social interactions. Combining social network analysis with activity pattern analysis can lead to a better understanding of socio-spatial isolation.
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Path, prism, project, pocket and population: An introduction [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3684.2004.00170.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
First page of article
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Lifestyle classifications with and without activity-travel patterns [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2009.04.002 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Trip-based approach and activity-based approach are two extremes in the use of activity related information when developing travel demand models. Creating lifestyle clusters for a population is a compromise between the two. On the one hand, it has taken into account travel-activity patterns in the development of the clusters. On the other hand, the clusters represent homogenous groups of individuals and simple activity-based travel demand models can be developed for each cluster. However, the development of such clusters requires knowledge of activity-travel patterns of individuals, which can only be obtained from a large-scale survey. It is still an open question how to create travel/activity-related lifestyle clusters using readily available socio-demographic data (such as census data) alone. This paper attempts to answer this question by proposing a procedure of lifestyle classification that moves from specific surveys to a general population. This paper first studies issues related to the development of homogeneous clusters using socio-economic, demographic and activity-travel data. The second part of the paper addresses the issue of data insufficiency and points out that in order to use the clusters developed for travel demand estimation, it is important to know how to allocate individuals in the population to the developed clusters. As a first attempt, this paper proposes to use a recently developed technique called, Support Vector Machine (SVM), to develop classification functions that based on readily available information only. The methodologies proposed are applied to a sub-urban area in Hong Kong. Six lifestyle clusters are first produced using factor analysis and cluster analysis. SVM is then used to develop classification functions that are based on fewer variables. Results show that the two sets of lifestyle clusters are similar and that the SVM outperforms other traditional classification methods.
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Bringing emotions to time geography: The case of mobilities of poverty [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.03.019 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Although there is ample evidence that the way we feel and anticipate feeling in certain situations or places can assert great influence on our behavior, this emotional component of the space-time path has for the most part remained external to time geographical analyses. Working from within a time geographical framework, this paper shows that spatio-temporal and emotional boundaries are both relevant and interacting while persons travel their paths through time and space. To that purpose we suggest a reinterpretation of authority constraints and to take into account the biological and cultural expressions of individuals. The rather static conceptualizations of the poverty-context relationship in poverty studies could benefit from an emotionally sensitive time geography. We draw from a small case study of low-income single mothers in San Francisco, California. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Leisure mobility styles in Swiss conurbations: Construction and empirical analysis [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-009-9198-8 Magsci 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>Leisure travel is the most difficult travel purpose to analyse due to the lack of fixed spatial and temporal referents and the consequent flexibility in patterns. This paper addresses lifestyles, social influence, and the travellers舗 social networks, issues that have proved valuable for travel behaviour research in confronting the complexity of leisure travel. An approach for constructing leisure mobility styles, based on orientations towards leisure and mobility, will be presented first and then the hypotheses that transport behaviour can be better explained through analysis of leisure mobility styles will be tested. Multivariate analysis reveals that the leisure mobility style group makes a significant contribution towards clarifying variance for the activities 舖Visiting friends and relatives舗, 舖Travel participation舗, 舖Mode choice舗, and 舖Travel distance for leisure舗. The use of leisure mobility styles is most useful for developing practical intervention pointers where the in-group homogeneity of lifestyle should be addressed in greater detail.
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a. Production, family, and free-time projects: A time-geographic perspective on the individual and societal change in nineteenth-century U.S. cities [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-7488(81)90082-7 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT Time-geography, with its path and project concepts, is very well suited for seeking insights regarding the interplay between individual behavior and experience, the workings of society, and societal change. In order to demonstrate this suitability the impacts of the emergence of the factory and large-scale shop mode of production in nineteenth-century U.S. cities are examined. Particular emphasis is placed on the timespace requirements of production projects, or activities, and their impact both on the functioning of the family and individual participation in “free-time” projects outside the home.
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b. Social reproduction and the time-geography of everyday life [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/490994 URL [本文引用: 4] 摘要
Abstract not available-from the text: Amidst the cacophony of clashing conceptual, methodological, and philosophical perspectives characterizing present-day human geography, one new sound is beginning to be heard faintly, yet with increasing frequency
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Instrumental and life-style aspects of urban travel behavior [J].URL 摘要
In order to determine the influence of life-style on travel behavior, a survey of 55,000 households in 70 urban localities in Israel was conducted using home-interview questionnaires and carbon and screen-line surveys. Households were visited on a weekday and asked about the number of trips taken between 2.00 P.M. that afternoon and their purpose. This data was correlated with data on income, household role (e.g. head of household), education, age and vehicle availability. It was found that, while vehicle availability, income, and education in general act as positive catalysts to household travel and reinforce each other, and while age is a negative factor (young adults are the most mobile group, and the elderly are the least), the variables interacted in other ways as well. The net positive effect of income on mobility was higher in automobileless households than in those with cars. Higher education was actually found to have a counter effect on income in reducing mobility. Subsistence trips (i.e. work and business trips) were the predominent trip purpose for heads of households, although this predominance is negatively related to education.
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Disaggregate travel demand models for the San Francisco Bay area [J].
This paper describes a practical model of non-home-based travel that can be incorporated in existing urban transportation model systems. The model is estimated by using a disaggregate sample of trips drawn from the 1965 home interview survey of the San Francisco Bay Area for the Metropolitan Transportation Commission. The model predicts trip generation, distribution, and mode split with full sensitivity to travel times, costs, and zone characteristics. The paper describes the overall model structure and estimation results. Comparisions with other research on non-home-based travel are drawn and recommendations for future research presented. /Authors/
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The use of the life-style concept in travel demand models [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a150623 URL [本文引用: 5] 摘要
The concept of life-style is becoming a major differentiating trait between population groups substituting for economic and social classes. This paper describes the utilization of the concept of life-style in the context of travel demand models. Life-style is defined as a pattern of behavior under constrained resources which conforms to the orientations an individual has toward three major `life decisions' he or she must make: (a) formation of a household (of any type), (b) participation in the labor force, and (c) orientation toward leisure. A population is classified into life-style groups based on similarity in a multivariate space. Socioeconomic and demographic variables define that space, and emphasis is put on variables which are indicative of emerging new life-styles (for example, the relative contribution of the female spouse to the household income). Cluster analysis is employed to identify the life-style groups. Models for the combinations of choice of mode and destination for shopping trips are estimated for the pooled sample and the life-style segments. Comparisons of these models with the performance of other market segmentation schemes and with the pooled model demonstrate that the life-style groups account for taste variations better than the other schemes.
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Social inequalities in travel behaviour: Trip distances in the context of residential self-selection and lifestyles [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.002 Magsci [本文引用: 5] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">In recent years, the framework of ‘classical’ objective determinants of travel behaviour – such as transport systems, generalised travel costs, life situation and the built environment – has begun to make way for the introduction of subjective elements including attitudes, lifestyles, and location preferences. This paper presents findings from an empirical study of trip distances travelled for three purposes (work, maintenance, leisure). The study was conducted in the region of Cologne, and the analysis is based on structural equation modelling. The results indicate that, in general, neither lifestyles nor location preferences have a strong impact on trip distances, except for leisure activities: here lifestyle has the strongest impact of all variables studied. Maintenance trip distances are significantly affected by the spatial setting in which people live, indicating the relevance of the built environment for this travel segment.</p>
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Lifestyles, choice of housing location and daily mobility: The lifestyle approach in the context of spatial mobility and planning [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2451.2003.05502011.x URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Today, spatial research and planning is confronted with complex frame conditions that have substantially changed in the past decades. Thus, a comprehensive social change is initiated, giving new room for individual development, but on the other hand making new decisions necessary (cue: individualisation). At the same time, settlement structures and time-regimes – essential conditions for spatial mobility – have developed dynamically (cues: decentralisation, flexibilisation). Hitherto however, research and planning show serious methodological problems in the consideration of the stated changes. The explanation patterns of existing approaches for spatial mobility are mainly based upon spatial and individual restrictions. Neither the increasing degrees of freedom nor the subjective rationales behind mobility decisions are adequately considered. The paper presents the conceptual framework, methods and preliminary results of the interdisciplinary research project “StadtLeben”. The central research question focuses on the interrelation between social structures (lifestyles, milieus), space-time-structures, housing and choice of housing location, and daily mobility. The proposed research approach shall help to develop target group-oriented and efficient planning and design strategies, which are tested in a workshop in an exemplary study area in Cologne. Together with planning practitioners, action-oriented knowledge as well as suggestions for planning methods (participation, processes, competence) shall be derived.
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What affects commute mode choice: Neighborhood physical structure or preferences toward neighborhoods [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.11.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The academic literature on the impact of urban form on travel behavior has increasingly recognized that residential location choice and travel choices may be interconnected. We contribute to the understanding of this interrelation by studying to what extent commute mode choice differs by residential neighborhood and by neighborhood type dissonance he mismatch between a commuter's current neighborhood type and her preferences regarding physical attributes of the residential neighborhood. Using data from the San Francisco Bay Area, we find that neighborhood type dissonance is statistically significantly associated with commute mode choice: dissonant urban residents are more likely to commute by private vehicle than consonant urbanites but not quite as likely as true suburbanites. However, differences between neighborhoods tend to be larger than between consonant and dissonant residents within a neighborhood. Physical neighborhood structure thus appears to have an autonomous impact on commute mode choice. The analysis also shows that the impact of neighborhood type dissonance interacts with that of commuters' beliefs about automobile use, suggesting that these are to be reckoned with when studying the joint choices of residential location and commute mode.
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Time-geography: A new beginning [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/030913258100500209 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
2) Elsewhere in his critique Baker pleads for'the adoption of a marxian human-ism'by historical geographers. He and others should realize that the use of time-geography is more than compatible with such an adoption. For example, whereas marxist scholars in a
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Key research themes on travel behavior, lifestyle, and sustainable urban mobility [J]. |
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Car availability explained by the structural relationships between lifestyles, residential location, and underlying residential and travel attitudes [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.05.006 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The majority of land use-travel behaviour studies only considers the direct influence of spatial characteristics on daily travel behaviour. However, this framework should be expanded. A first step is to explore the complex interdependencies of long-term lifestyle decisions, medium-term decisions about residential location and car ownership, and the underlying residential and travel attitudes. Travel behaviour should be considered within a hierarchy of decisions while considering the motivational background of these decisions. Using data from an Internet survey completed by +1800 respondents in Flanders, Belgium, this paper defines car ownership somewhat more broadly as car availability. Results of a structural equation model indicate a significant direct effect of the residential neighbourhood on car availability. However, effects are small compared to the influence of other variables such as stage of life and travel (mode) attitude, the latter referring to travel-related selfselection. Moreover, one should keep in mind that residential attitudes remain important in the initial selection of the residential neighbourhood and its spatial characteristics, indicating the need to control for residential self-selection. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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| [45] |
Car ownership as a mediating variable in car travel behaviour research using a structural equation modelling approach to identify its dual relationship [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.05.006 Magsci [本文引用: 3] 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Car ownership is generally considered an important variable in car travel behaviour research, but its specific role is often not well understood. Certain empirical studies consider car ownership as the dependent variable explained by the built environment, whereas other studies deem it to be one of the independent variables explaining car travel behaviour. This paper takes note of the dual influence car ownership has in explaining car travel behaviour by assuming that car ownership mediates the relationship between the built environment and car use. The relationship is estimated using a structural equation model since it accounts for mediating variables. This approach confirms the intermediary nature of car ownership.</p>
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| [46] |
Lifestyles and the city: Connecting daily life to urbanity [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-009-9150-4 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>Urban households are part of what makes a city a city: economically, because of their labour market participation and use of urban facilities; and socially, because of their participation in public life. In turn, these urban households profit from what the city has to offer. In this paper, a household typology is constructed according to type and extent of 舖urban connectedness舗. Urban connectedness is not identified as people舗s stated preference but rather as people舗s revealed relationship with the urban society through their residential choices. Subsequently, the urban orientation of these household types is explored. Empirical data are obtained for the city of Amsterdam.
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| [47] |
Latent lifestyle preferences and household location decisions [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10109-006-0030-0 Magsci 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>Lifestyle, indicating preferences towards a particular way of living, is a key driver of the decision of where to live. We employ latent class choice models to represent this behavior, where the latent classes are the lifestyles and the choice model is the choice of residential location. Thus, we simultaneously estimate lifestyle groups and how lifestyle impacts location decisions. Empirical results indicate three latent lifestyle segments: suburban dwellers, urban dwellers, and transit-riders. The suggested lifestyle segments have intriguing policy implications. Lifecycle characteristics are used to predict lifestyle preferences, although there remain significant aspects that cannot be explained by observable variables.
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| [48] |
Modelling lifestyle effects on energy demand and related emissions [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(00)00040-9 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
An approach to analyse and quantify the impact of lifestyle factors on current and future energy demand is developed. Thereby not only directly environmentally relevant consumer activities such as car use or heating have been analysed, but also expenditure patterns which induce environmental damage through the production of the consumed goods. The use of household survey data from the national statistical offices offers the possibility to cover this wide range of activities. For the available social-economic household characteristics a variety of different behavioural patterns have been observed. For evaluating the energy and emission consequences of the consumed goods enhanced input-output models are used. The additions implemented - a mixed monetary-energetic approach for inter-industry flows and a separate treatment of transport-related emissions - improve the reliability of the obtained results. The developed approach has been used for analysing current emission profiles and distributions in West Germany, France and the Netherlands as well as scenarios for future energy demand and related emissions. It therefore provides a comprehensive methodology to analyse environmental effects in a consumer and citizen perspective and thus contributes to an increased transparency of complex economic and ecological interconnections.
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| [49] |
Life-oriented approach for urban policy decision-making: Surveys and applications [ |
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