国家公园公益化管理国外相关研究及启示

doi:10.18306/dlkxjz.2021.02.012

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

国家公园通过公益化管理体现其公益性。相关主体行为是相应管理的主要对象,以使之产生正外部性,减少或消除其负外部性。国外国家公园已有100多年的公益化管理实践,产生了大量研究。论文分析、归纳国外学者在相关方面所关注的主要内容,并系统梳理针对这些内容的研究,总结出其对国内国家公园公益化管理中应对现实问题、达成“理顺权属关系、扩大社会参与、实现公益服务、保障社区利益”等目标的启示：非国有土地管理合约化、管理权限系统化、保护责任制度化、社会募捐常态化、生态保护科学化;以及通过构建渠道、科学组织实现公众参与保护及管理;以体现公益、优化体验、环境教育为目标提供游憩服务;以正外部性最大、负外部性最小为原则对企业及访客进行管理;以激励相融、利益保障为原则实现社区共管共享等。

关键词: 国家公园, 公益化管理, 国外文献, 研究总结

Abstract:

National parks achieve their public welfare objective through public welfare oriented management that takes different stakeholders' behaviors as the main object of management, and the management focuses on maximizing the positive externalities of related behaviors and minimizing their negative externalities. There has been a history of 148 years since the first national park was set up in the world. From then on, numerous international studies relevant to the public welfare orientated management have been conducted. This study examined the international research literature by using bibliometric analysis, summarizing the key contents on managing national park stakeholders' behaviors for public welfare, and systematically reviewing international research related to these key contents. Implications for the public welfare orientated management of national parks in China for addressing the current problems and realizing the main management goals, improving the ownership relationship, enhancing social participation, realizing public welfare, and protecting local communities' interests include: 1) to promote management through managing non-state land by signing contracts, granting regulatory agency systematic administration authority, institutionalizing the protection duty, normalizing social donation, and improving environmental conservation; 2) to realize public involvement in conservation and management by establishing channels and scientifically organizing such activities so as to achieve greater protection and sound decision making and to reflect public interests; 3) to provide recreational services aiming at reflecting public welfare of national parks, optimizing tourist experience, and implementing environment education; 4) to manage private enterprises and visitors according to the principles of maximizing positive externalities and minimizing negative externalities; and 5) to guarantee local people's rights and to realize community co-management and sharing of benefits through integrating conservation and development.

Key words: national parks, management for public welfare, international literature, review of research

孙琨, 钟林生. 国家公园公益化管理国外相关研究及启示[J]. 地理科学进展, 2021, 40(2): 314-329.

SUN Kun, ZHONG Linsheng. International research on national park management for public welfare and implications[J]. PROGRESS IN GEOGRAPHY, 2021, 40(2): 314-329.

图/表 4

表1

图1

表2

表3

中国国家公园管理需应对的主要问题"

重点任务	目标	需应对的问题	国外相关研究的主要启示
理顺权属关系	实现统一管理、整体保护	(1) 土地权属复杂^[120] (2) 多部门及多行政单元分割管理^[121]	(1) 通过合约依托非国有土地设国家公园 (2) 赋予管理机构更高层级、更系统性管理权限等
	明确各级政府事权	(1) 政府资金投入不足^[4] (2) 地方统筹协调权力不够^[122]	(1) 政府保护投入责任制度化 (2) 更高层级政府介入等
	管理、经营、监督权分置	(1) 政企不分、垄断经营^[123] (2) 特许经营机制不健全^[124] (3) 公众知情、监督权未得到有效保障^[1]	(1) 引入企业并监管经营 (2) 实行特许经营,以合适的合同约束经营者 (3) 信息公开,设立代表公众的组织参与管理等
扩大社会参与	获得更多投入、让社会力量参与保护与管理	(1) 社会参与不足、社会资金介入机制不健全^[1] (2) 多方参与渠道尚未形成^[121] (3) 各方利益协调难度较大^[19]	(1) 社会募捐常态化 (2) 向访客收少量环保费 (3) 充分利用非政府组织资金 (4) 设置社区参与的保护项目等
实现公益服务	实现保护以提供公共生态服务	(1) 科学性保护薄弱^[120] (2) 保护资金投入不足^[4] (3) 生态监测力度不够^[125] (4) 气候变化对保护带来挑战^[19]	(1) 用科学论证、科技手段支撑保护 (2) 利用多方保护投入 (3) 用新技术、手段、渠道提升监测效率 (4) 针对气候变化影响进行适度人为干预等
实现公益服务	在保护前提下提供游憩等服务	(1) 门票价格高^[4] (2) 未很好体现教育服务^[5] (3) 保护和游憩间矛盾突出^[126]	(1) 公益优先,低门票或免门票运营 (2) 突出标识系统教育功能 (3) 对访客进行监测、引导和限制等
保障社区利益	体现社会公平	(1) 国家公园内居民多,对自然资源的生计依赖性强^[120] (2) 对社区利益保障不够^[1] (3) 对社区损失未进行有效补偿^[4] (4) 社区参与不足^[124]	(1) 公平补偿社区居民 (2) 社区居民公平分享收益 (3) 为社区参与增权赋能 (4) 组织社区参与管理等

表3

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类型	公益性本质	公益性表现	公益性实现途径
Ⅰ	多利益主体间形成的以“保护第一、全民公益”为特征的利益关系^[16]	向全民提供作为公共福利的休闲、教育及审美等机会^[17]	生态保护、社区共管、公众参与、保障全民参访权;规范利益相关者权力、义务^[17]
Ⅱ	当代及未来公众,当地及外地居民平等分享其生态福利^[18]	低廉收费^[5];公共利益共享^[18]	可持续化管理^[19];通过共同体规则实现公共利益^[18]
Ⅲ	利益相关者博弈的结果;国家公园所产生的所有正外部效应^[5]	为公众利益而设,为准公共物品;以保护为前提^[5]	公众参与;一方应为其他各方带来正外部效应,并尽可能减少或消除所产生的负外部效应^[5]
Ⅳ	全民共享国家公园生态系统所产生的福祉^[3]	生态、游憩、教育等公共服务^[3]	若其生态能得到进一步保护,则其公益性便会进一步增强^[3]

国家公园运营模式		特征	优点	缺点
无企业参与	完全公共化	完全向公众开放、由税收支持	有利于实现保护	有税收压力;管理者缺乏控制成本、响应公众需求的动力
	使用者合理付费的公共事业	公共监督下适当收费;税收及收费共同支撑或自负盈亏	减轻税收负担;促使公园提高服务效率、考虑需求变化	过分注重收益会导致过分商业化;会妨碍低收入者的利用;访客减少会造成经费危机
	非营利组织管理	致力于公益;主要靠捐赠提供经费	不依靠财政;一些组织购买土地来保护	不像政府一样透明;经济来源脆弱;存在保护立场不坚定、只注重组织自身发展等现象
有企业参与	合同制私营参与	公共部门投入必要资金,私营公司通过竞争获取经营权	可低成本和灵活运营;减少财政支出	私营方须获取利润,常以低工资及福利缩减开支,可能导致一些社会问题;局部过度商业化
	私有土地公共化管理及私营参与	私有者将土地交公共部门统管、向公众开放,分享收益	政府不需购买土地;可扩大保护地及游憩地面积	存在国家公园管理部门权威性较低、统筹协调难度较大的问题;需同时兼顾经济目标
	完全私营	私营者以营利等为目的保护和运营自然区域	运营效率高,无税收负担	小块有吸引力且进入性可控的可营利区会被保留,很难大面积保护;会出现高度商业化赢利点;会阻挡不付费者