李国庆
, 李晓兵
LI Guoqing, LI Xiaobing
版权声明: 2016 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
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作者简介:
作者简介：李国庆(1982-),男,讲师,博士,主要从事草原生态遥感、湿地环境遥感等方面研究,E-mail:ligqing@foxmail.com。
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摘要
风能作为清洁和环境友好的可再生能源,可以减少对化石燃料的依赖,因而近年来发展迅速。但风电设施在安装和运行过程中,评价其对环境产生的影响却尚未得到足够的重视。本文综述了风电场施工和运行过程对气候变化及陆地生态系统的可能影响,同时探讨了风电设施所产生的噪声污染及辐射效应,认为未来风电研究的重要方向为：①评价风电场对气候的影响,还需要建立或改进更精细的气候模型;②探讨风电场对动物的影响,需要识别到底哪些环境因子对动物活动起到了决定性的作用,这些因子在不同风电场中是否具有普遍性;③分析风电场对植被的影响,需要综合利用遥感监测及生态学调查方法,才能准确识别不同陆地生态系统植被对风电场的响应机制;④研究风电场对生态系统碳、氮循环的影响,要加强地表实测数据的获取,尤其是连续多年的数据获取,形成长期的观测序列,进行时空尺度的分析;⑤风电场在全球不同区域,对各环境要素的影响并不完全一致,通过对典型区域的研究来反映风电场对环境影响的共性问题,是目前较为可行的方法;⑥在确保风能作为新能源发展重点的同时,还需保护整个陆地生态系统的生产力和生物多样性,在此基础上才能准确评价、处理风电场与可持续发展的关系;⑦在风电场建设前的环评阶段,需要补充完善现有环评导则和标准,充分考虑风能、太阳能等新兴能源对环境长期而复杂的影响;⑧中国作为世界风能利用的第一大国,需要适时建立长期定位观测试验站,以期开展风电场对环境影响的定量化、全过程、时空尺度的细致研究。本文可为人类科学合理的利用风能、处理风电场建设与可持续发展的关系是提供一些思路。
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Abstract
Wind energy is generally considered a clean and environmentally friendly renewable energy source that can reduce societal dependence on fossil fuels. Wind energy has rapidly developed in recent years; developing technologies and the relatively low cost of wind energy production will make it a significant energy source in the future. At present, China's energy policy is gradually including wind energy. However, the environmental impact of installing and operating wind farms has not been thoroughly investigated. Although the impact of a wind farm will be a gradual process over a long period of time, and the impact may be difficult to measure, any environmental impacts cannot be ignored. Through analyzing the research status in China and internationally, this article summarizes eight aspects of wind farm impact, including on climatic change, vegetation, soil, and C/N cycle. In addition, this article summarizes the methods employed for evaluating the impacts. Finally, eight areas of concern may need to be investigated in the future to assess the impact of wind farms on the environment: (1) to evaluate the impact of wind farms on climate, more precise climate models need to be established or improved; (2) to explore the effect of wind farms on animals, it is necessary to identify what environmental factors play a decisive role in the activities of the animals, and whether these factors are universal in different wind farms; (3) to analyze and detect the impact of wind farms on vegetation, it is necessary to comprehensively use remote sensing monitoring and ecological survey methods to accurately identify the response mechanisms of different terrestrial ecosystems; (4) to study the impact of wind farms on the carbon and nitrogen cycles of the ecosystem, it is necessary to improve the acquisition of measured data, especially data acquisition over a long period of time, so as to form a long-term observation sequence for the analysis of greater spatial and temporal scale; (5) the impact of wind farms in different regions of the world on various environmental factors is not exactly the same. The study of a typical area to reflect the common problems of wind farm impact on the environment is a feasible approach at present; (6) while focusing on wind energy development, we also need to protect the productivity and biodiversity of the whole terrestrial ecosystems. Only on this basis can we accurately evaluate the relationship between wind farms and sustainable development; (7) in the environmental impact assessment (EIA) stage before the construction of wind farms, the current environmental impact assessment guidelines and standards should be improved, and the long-term complex influence of wind, solar, and other new energy on the environment should be taken into full account; (8) as the world's wind energy superpower, China should timely establish long-term observation and experiment stations to quantify the process, and emphasize the impact of wind farms on the environment from the broader temporal and spatial perspectives.
Keywords：
由于化石能源的不可再生性及其燃烧带来的环境问题日益加剧,清洁能源越来越被各国政府和民众所接受(Dincer et al, 2015)。从全球的清洁能源利用发展来看,风能作为一种清洁能源,越来越受到广泛重视(Garrigle et al, 2015; Phillips, 2015)。2010-2015年间,全球风能发电量以年均30%的速度增长,预计到2020年,风能将占全球总能源的5% (Herbert et al, 2007)。中国的清洁能源政策也逐步向风能方向倾斜(McElroy et al, 2009),自2008年起,中国风力发电机的已有装机容量和装机速度一直稳居世界第一位,风能未来将在中国能源结构中占据重要地位(Xu et al, 2010; Feng et al, 2015)。风电场建立之初,研究人员和政府部门更关注于风电的节能减排作用,由于风电场对环境的影响是一个长期渐变和难以衡量的过程,致使风电场对环境的影响评价被人为忽视(Leung et al, 2012; Sun et al, 2015)。由此未来可能会造成灾难性的影响(Leung et al, 2012; Armstrong et al, 2014; Feng et al, 2015)。风能在带来积极环境效应的同时,风电开发和运行对环境的负面影响还需认真思考。风电场对人类及生存环境的影响是“利大于弊”还是“弊大于利”,目前已经开始出现争议,但由于缺少深入系统的研究,迄今未得出“利弊如何”的结论(赵宗慈等, 2011; Zhou L M et al, 2012; Phillips, 2015; 李智兰, 2015)。本文参照大量国内外文献,归纳总结风电场对环境影响的主要方面,指出目前研究的主要方向、方法及存在的问题,以期为客观地认识风能、掌握风电场对环境影响的评价方法提供借鉴。
风电场在施工期对环境的影响主要是对地表原有生态系统的破坏。陆上风电场施工期的危害主要有：施工期间的挖土与回填土工程,如道路修建、土地平整、风机基础工程、箱式变电工程、电缆沟工程等,将破坏地表形态和土层结构,造成地表裸露,植被破坏,土壤肥力受损,导致水土流失发生(表1)(Armstrong et al, 2014; 李智兰, 2015)。在湿地生态系统中建设风电场,施工过程会导致土壤结构和地表植被改变,改变了底栖生物的生境,导致风电场范围内底栖生物的消亡(Fagúndez, 2010; 宋文玲, 2011); 而对于海上风电场,除将造成底栖动物全部丧失外,风机塔架基础结构施工过程中,会引起周围一定范围内悬浮泥沙增加(>10 mg/L),造成藻类等植被光合作用减弱(季遥, 2010; Andersson, 2011)。与此同时,施工过程中产生的振动和噪声对海洋生物也会产生一定影响,国内有媒体报道,风力发电工程项目在施工过程中巨大的撞击声和震动感会对亲鱼培育产生严重影响,造成出苗率低、畸形苗多等问题,但目前尚未见深入的科学研究方法和可信的科学结论(天长市农委渔业局, 2012)。另外,由于人类活动、交通运输工具、施工机械的机械运动,相应施工过程中产生的噪声、灯光等可能对邻近岸边及近岸地区的鸟类栖息地和觅食的鸟类产生一定影响,导致施工区域及周边区域中分布的鸟类数量减少、多样性降低(Wang et al, 2015a),但这种影响是局部的、短期的、可逆的,当工程建设完成后,其影响基本可以消除(Furness et al, 2013)。
表1 风电场施工期对陆地环境的影响
Tab.1 Impact of wind farms on the terrestrial environment during the construction period
| 污染来源 | 环境危害 |
|---|---|
| 风电场占地场地平整、配套道路施工 | 植被破坏、水土流失 |
| 设备运输过程 | 噪声污染、扬尘增加 |
| 施工建材堆放 | 植被覆盖度减少、土壤结构破坏 |
| 风电场及附属设施施工 | 碎砖、废沙等建筑垃圾、 噪声污染、底栖生物的消亡 |
| 施工过程及设备清洗所产生的废水 | 含悬浮颗粒物、石油类悬浮物废水的污染 |
风电场可以改变局地气象条件、陆表和大气的热交换过程(Keith et al, 2004; Xia et al, 2016),其中风电场对蒸散发、风速及地表温度的影响受到了广泛关注(Roy et al, 2004; Vautard et al, 2010)。蒸散发受风电场的影响可能最为严重,学者们较早地进行了相关研究(Baidya et al, 2004; Keith et al, 2004)。在研究方法上,主要从区域尺度评价风电场对蒸散发的影响,由于风电场的观测数据很少公布于众,大面积的实地蒸散发观测也具有较大的难度,因此目前多利用气候模型模拟的方法判断大型风电场对蒸散发的影响趋势,取得了非常好的效果(Roy et al, 2004; 胡菊, 2012; Vautard et al, 2014)。现有研究表明,风电场对局地蒸散发的影响可达300 mm/a以上(徐荣会, 2014; Szilagyi, 2015)。
在探讨风电场对局地风速的影响方面,主要通过模型模拟方法。风力发电机运行过程中,会吸收气流的动量,从而使下游地区风速明显减小20%~40%,影响范围可达30~60 km(Frandsen et al, 2009; Vautard et al, 2010)。但这一影响范围可能会随着风电场规模增加而扩大,有报道表明,京津冀爆发大面积雾霾很大程度上是由于近些年风速的减小,而风速的减小很可能与内蒙古风电场大规模建设相关,但由于缺少完整可信的研究体系,这一结论的争议尚很大(刘江恒等, 2014)。
在对地表温度的影响方面,Somnath等(2010)通过在美国加利福尼亚风电场上、下风处各设立一个观测塔,实测发现风电场会对上、下风处的气温产生影响,且气温变化特点不同,但受限于观测成本和方法,无法从区域尺度上验证。Zhou L M等(2012)首次利用遥感数据从区域尺度上监测了美国德克萨斯州风电场地表温度的变化趋势发现,风电场的建设,使附近地表增温达0.72℃。
另外,对风电场周围的实验观测表明：风速、地表温度、湍流的变化可能影响大气湿度和温室气体(如CO2、CH4和N2O)在近地面边界层的浓度分布(Roy et al, 2004; Roy, 2011),甚至使降雨量增加(Fiedler et al, 2011)。上述现象可能发生相互作用,通过对局地气象因子的长期改变,最终影响局地气候条件。
风电场对气候的影响不只是局地的,还有大范围的气候效应。大型风电场设置会造成全球大气能量损失,使得全球表面经向风速、温度、云、感热、潜热、短波和长波辐射都会发生变化,间接影响降雨量的变化(Keith et al, 2004; Balog et al, 2016)。由于风电场对全球气候变化的影响观测困难,目前主要以NCAR和GFDL等模型模拟方法来评价其对全球气候变化的影响(赵宗慈等, 2011; Balog et al, 2016)。Wang等(2010)利用NCAR模型,模拟到2100年全球使用风能占总能源的10%以上时,风电场对全球气候的影响,研究结果表明：陆地风电场设置使全球陆地年平均气温升高0.15℃,沿海风电场对全球年平均气温没有影响;南北半球中低纬度大部分地区变暖,其中许多地区变暖在1℃以上;风电场造成全球大部分网格点上动能减小,盛行风速明显减弱,多数格点气温上升;风电场的设置改变了近地层的感热和潜热通量以及动量和风速,从而间接改变降水量和云量(Wang et al, 2010)。
Armstrong等(2014)将风电场对大气造成上述影响的可能原因进行了分析(图1)。在图1中,温度和蒸散量白天是个不稳定的大气边界,晚上是一个稳定的大气边界。粉红色背景代表较温暖的空气,蓝灰色背景代表较冷空气。粉红色虚线箭头表示暖空气涡旋,该涡旋将增加局地范围内空气的温度,蓝灰色的实线箭头代表较冷的空气涡旋,该涡旋将降低该范围内空气的温度。水平箭头粗细表示通过涡轮机前后风速的大小,垂直箭头的粗细代表蒸散量的大小。由图1可见,理论上风电场会使得下风处的近地表下层空气出现白天“减温增湿”,晚上“增温减湿”的现象,上风处恰好相反。风电场通过改变风速、湍流、垂直混合、蒸发、陆表和大气的热交换过程,进而改变大气边界层条件,最终影响陆表气象,进一步影响气候状况。
图1 风电场对大气潜在影响示意图(
Fig.1 Potential impact of wind farms on the atmospheric environment(
目前,有关风电场对局地气候的影响存在很大的争议。首先,并不是所有研究都表明风电场会对气候产生影响。例如Vautard等(2014)利用一个复杂的区域气候模型对欧洲部分地区的风电场进行研究,结果表明,风电场不会对区域气候产生显著影响,风电场对气候的影响要比欧洲绝大部分地方的自然气候变化小得多。另外,从目前探讨风电场对局地气候影响的方法方面看,一般采用气候模型模拟方法,但由于气候模式的不确定性、风电场模拟试验设计的不确定性,以及模拟结果验证的复杂性,大面积建立风电场的全球气候效应尚有很大不确定性,争议也较大(Fitch, 2015)。再者,已有研究还缺乏对下述因素的考虑：①风力发电机的型号、高度、密度、空间分布形式和数量的差异性;②几乎没有考虑风电场及其周边的气候条件、地表类型及地形因素的异质性对结果的影响。研究仅集中在气候条件、地表类型相同或相似的风电场,缺少在不同风电场中的对比研究;③观测时空尺度的不一致性,忽略时空尺度的差异可能会产生相悖的研究结论。因此,研究风电场对区域气候的影响,还需要针对不同地形区域、不同地表类型区域和不同气候背景下的风电场进行长期观测,这种长期观测的尺度可能长达几十年,甚至更长。
相对于理解和评价风电场对气候变化的影响,风电场对陆地生态的影响更直观,也容易评价。目前主要涉及到风电场对动物、植物、土壤及生态系统碳、氮循环方面。
风电场对动物的影响研究主要围绕陆地及海上2个场景进行。相对于风电场建立之前,陆地风电场内鸟类及蝙蝠等飞行动物的活动会迅速下降,这主要是由于风机运行的噪声和风机转动对动物的伤害所致。风机运行的时候,每台风机产生的噪声值约为96~104 dB(A)之间,对噪声比较敏感的动物就会选择回避;很多学者通过统计鸟类栖息地的数量和面积、迁徙路线、种群数量等方式评价风机对鸟类和蝙蝠的影响发现,转动的风机以及架空的输电线会导致鸟类和蝙蝠撞击伤亡,大多数鸟类和蝙蝠会主动避免在此区域栖息和觅食(宋文玲, 2011; Hernández-Pliego et al, 2015; Peste et al, 2015; Wang et al, 2015a)。但也有研究指出,风机转动对鸟类确实存在驱赶作用,但对鸟类的数量影响不大,与同死于飞机、汽车、建筑物、通讯塔、架空电线等人造机器或设备下的鸟数量相比,死于风机下的鸟数量微不足道(Erickson et al, 2001)。目前,探讨鸟类活动与环境因子的相关性研究很多,但在风电场内特定环境下,进行鸟类活动与环境因子相关性的研究较少。而风电场内影响鸟类活动的环境因子更为复杂,如地形地貌、天气状况、风机高度与排列、植被层次结构、鸟类可捕食的鼠虫数量、人为干扰等。风电场内鸟类活动与哪些环境因子之间具有显著相关关系,这些相关因子是否具有普遍性,还有待于今后进一步研究。
海上风电设施的设置对动物的影响方面,目前看喜忧参半,因风机植入海底的部分相当于人造岛礁,为鱼类提供更为安全的庇护场所(Stenberg et al, 2011; Petz, 2012; Bergström et al, 2014),从而会增加鱼的种类。但风力发电机运行过程产生的噪声,可能会对近海鱼类活动和繁殖产生消极影响,但影响程度和鱼类的品种相关(Andersson, 2011)。
目前,探讨风电场对植被的影响主要在小尺度内进行,一般采用生态学调查方法,实地分析电场建设前后的植被变化。一般认为,风电场的运行会对电场区域内植被覆盖度、地上、地下生物量和枯落物含量产生消极影响(Fagúndez, 2010; 王希平, 2014; 李智兰, 2015),受限于电场建成历史短的限制,以及生态学地面调查方法的空间尺度限制,研究时间还局限于风电场建立前、后两期的对比,研究范围还限于风电场附近2~3 km范围。但从风电场对局地气候影响范围看,风电场对植被的影响范围也绝不会仅限于上述范围内;由于植被对风电场的响应具有滞后性,仅通过风电场建立前后植被样地的对比,尚不能准确反映风电场对植被的影响。所以评价风电场对植被的影响,还需考虑更大的空间范围、更长的连续时间尺度。李国庆等(2016)以内蒙古灰腾梁风电场为例,利用遥感数据分析了电场50 km范围内、建设前9年和建成后7年植被的变化情况,研究发现：①风电场对电场区域内外植被的影响机制是不同的,且和风向密切相关,电场区域内不利于植被的生长,而上、下风区域却有利于植被的生长,其中下风处更甚;②距离风电场中心30~40 km的下风区很可能是受风电场影响最为明显的区域。但这是在假设地表放牧干扰相似的情况得出的结论,“放牧干扰相似”是李国庆等(2016)通过野外的宏观观测与牧户调查得出的,还需要通过布设大量的样地来验证这一结论。另外,目前尚未见风电场对森林、湿地植被影响相关的研究,还需进行该方面的研究工作,以发现风电场对“草原生态系统”“湿地生态系统”和“森林生态系统”植被影响机制的“相似性”与“相异性”。为此,将经典的生态学调查方法与遥感技术相结合,也许会更容易、更真实地揭示风电场对植被的影响机制。
目前,探讨风电场对土壤的影响,主要通过对风电场及周边土壤样品的采样和分析。有研究表明：风电场的建设增加了扰动区域的土壤容重、PH和总孔隙度,降低了土壤电导率、含水量和全盐,同时也降低了土壤养分(李智兰, 2015)。但是否会对风电场占地范围之外的土壤产生影响,影响范围和强度有多大,目前尚无相关研究。值得注意的是,风电场对局地气候的影响,势必造成土壤温室气体排放的变化,对土壤的碳、氮等元素的循环过程产生重大影响(Bardgett et al, 2008; Allison et al, 2010; Zhou J Z et al, 2012)。另外,风电场通过对降雨的影响间接改变土壤水分的输入量(Lee et al, 2012)。也有研究假设风电场会改变土壤的水分蒸发,但目前这一结论并未得到实验的验证(Roy et al, 2004)。在风电场占地范围之外,由于土壤对外部的干扰是滞后且缓慢的,风电场对土壤的影响可能需要20~25年,甚至更长的时间才能表现出来(Euskirchen et al, 2009)。从已有研究结果看,由于目前尚未形成长时间连续序列的土壤观测资料,实地验证困难,通过模型模拟风电场对土壤的影响可能成为唯一可行的手段。由于中国风电历史更短,在长时间尺度上研究风电场对土壤的影响更为罕见。
与风电场对植被、土壤的影响相比,从整个陆地生态系统范围探讨风电场对碳、氮循环的影响就更为复杂。风电场主要通过对局地微气象的影响,对生态系统的碳、氮循环产生影响,最终形成对全球变化的反馈(图2)(Armstrong et al, 2014)。在图2中,线形虚线箭头表示风电场对陆地碳、氮循环和气候变化的直接影响,点形虚线箭头表示风电场对陆地碳、氮循环和气候变化的间接影响,实线箭头表示上述过程对全球变化的反馈。风电场的直接影响主要表现在通过对温度、土壤湿度的影响,导致植物群落组成和生产力、土壤微生物活性发生变化;风电场的间接影响主要体现在：通过对植物群落组成和生产力的影响,进而改变土壤理化条件和土壤的碳、氮输入,最终改变土壤微生物群落的变化,对全球变化产生反馈。
但就陆地生态系统碳、氮循环而言,这个过程本身就微妙而复杂,涉及的因素庞杂(Li et al, 2014; Li et al, 2016)。目前主要的问题是：在现有气候变化模型不足以准确揭示风电场对局地甚至全球气候变化影响的情况下,进一步开展讨论风电场对碳、氮循环的影响及对全球变化的反馈就更加困难。揭示风电场对陆地生态系统碳、氮循环的影响需要长期的深入研究,而科学理解风电场对陆地生态系统碳、氮循环的影响,是衡量风电利弊的关键。
图2 风电场对碳、氮循环的影响及对全球变化的反馈(
Fig.2 Impact of wind farms on carbon and nitrogen cycling and the feedback to global change (
相对风电场对气候及环境的影响,风电场产生的噪声对人类生活的影响迅速、直接、最令人难以忍受。风力涡轮机引起噪声主要有机械噪声和空气动力噪声。目前,很多学者已开展了类似研究,均表明风机转动过程中所产生的低频噪声会对人类生活造成影响(King et al, 2012; Laratro et al, 2014; Wasala et al, 2015)。Pedersen(2011)探讨了风力涡轮机的声压水平与邻居的幸福感之间的关系,结果显示在风力涡轮机的存在下,人更加容易被激怒,而且会出现头痛等症状,他通过构建加权声音变量和疾病之间的回归关系,判断风机噪音对人类身体健康的影响。Punch等(2010)和Arezes等(2014)在对这方面的文献进行回顾总结时发现,风力涡轮机的低频空气动力噪音会引起睡眠障碍和听力损失,同时也会伤害前庭系统。但风电场产生的噪声影响距离一般不会超过4 km(Arezes et al, 2014; Zajamšek et al, 2016)。现有研究存在的主要问题是：从研究方法上看,通过定量方式评价噪声的大小和距离的关系相对容易,但评价噪声对人类的影响程度却极其复杂,因为这种影响和人群对噪声的耐受程度及年龄相关(Abbasi et al, 2015)。从研究区域上看,上述研究多集中在荒漠、草原、高山森林生态系统等人类聚集不明显的区域。在这些区域,风电噪声对人类生活的影响并不明显,但在近海及海岛风电场,尤其是中国东部沿海,人类聚集密度大,能源紧缺,风电是当地能源紧缺的重要补充形式,风力涡轮机转动的噪声对人类活动影响尤为显著(人民网, 2015)。由于目前还缺少完备的风电噪声评价体系,和对当地居民合理的补偿机制,因而造成的“人—风”之间矛盾非常突出,在该类区域探讨风电与人类活动协调发展最为迫切。
风电场辐射源主要有风力发电机、变电站、输电线路3个部分(Sengupta, 1999)。风力发电机在150 m以外对人体所产生的电磁干扰几乎可以忽略不计(贺志明, 2008)。但风力发电机叶片是由具有强反射能力的金属材料制成,对无线电信号的电磁干扰影响很大,主要表现在对电视广播、微波通信、飞机导航等无线通信的影响上;只有当波长大于风轮机总高度的4倍以上时,通信信号才基本不受影响(Mroziński et al, 2015)。此外架设的高压输电线路处于工作时,相对地面将产生静电感应,形成一个交变电磁辐射场,对无线电形成干扰(石洪华, 2012)。相对于风力发电机和输电线路所产生的电磁辐射,变电站产生的电磁辐射更容易人为控制和降低;当变电站进出线采用地下电缆时,运行时产生的电磁辐射对周围环境的影响几乎可忽略不计(Ozen, 2008)。评价风电场建成后对周围环境的辐射影响研究较多,但在风电场建设前的环评阶段,对其电磁辐射效应的考虑却显得不足(Lapčík, 2008; Jones et al, 2014)。例如,风电场及其附属设施所产生的电磁辐射可能会抬高地区电磁环境的背景噪声,会导致军用雷达等用频系统效能难以有效发挥;由于涉及到多个部门的协调工作,环评阶段对这一因素考虑尚不全面,将有可能给国家经济及国防建设带来重大损失(吴彪等, 2016)。要降低风电场的辐射效应,今后需要重点考虑下述几个因素：①风力发电机的电磁辐射要控制在设计环节,设计和制造时要选择防磁、防辐射的材料,减少风机转动对无线电信号的干扰;②在风电场建设的环评阶段,必须考虑风力发电机的参数及相关无线电系统参数,多部门协调工作,减少对军用雷达等用频系统的干扰;③输电线路设计要调查线路经过的居民点,了解当地通讯线路的走势,避开重要电子设施,比如电视发射塔、移动通讯发射塔和基站、电话程控塔、机场导航台等;④选用设备干扰水平要低,并与可以造成干扰的设备保持防护间距,输电线要适当抬高架设高度,减小输电线的线下场强。
探讨风电场对环境的影响的最终目的,是期待景观、区域及全球尺度的可持续发展(Matthies et al, 2015; Papathanasopoulou et al, 2015; Alam et al, 2016)。保证区域生态系统服务需求与供给的动态平衡是实现区域可持续发展的基本条件(Burkhard et al, 2012; Yahdjian et al, 2015)。但现有研究表明,在区域尺度上,风电场对生态系统服务中的空气质量的提升、植被生长的促进有积极作用,而对土壤、水、牲畜的影响则以消极作用为主(Wiedmann et al, 2011);在全球尺度上,风电场对生态系统服务以消极影响为主(Wang et al, 2015b)。虽然一般认为,风能是绿色、环保、可持续发展能源的代表,但对此我们不能盲从,需警惕和继续关注。通过对目前国内外研究方向的梳理,未来风电研究的重要方向为：
(1) 评价风电场对气候的影响,还需要建立或改进更精细的气候模型。由于多数气候模型是以气象站测定的数据为基础,而气象站点间距过远,难以准确地反映气象因子的空间异质性,使得准确衡量风电场对局地气候的影响距离受到制约(Vautard et al, 2014; Fitch, 2015)。在运用精细气候模型的基础上,需要针对不同地形区域、不同地表类型区域和不同气候背景下的风电场进行进一步的长期观测研究,解决前文所述的争议问题。
(2) 探讨风电场对动物的影响,需要识别到底哪些环境因子对动物活动起到了决定性作用,这些因子在不同风电场中是否具有普遍性。另外,目前的研究对象还集中在对鸟类等飞行动物的影响,从生态系统能量循环的角度来说,飞行动物的变化势必对整个生态系统的食物链产生影响,目前这方面的研究极为不足。
(3) 分析风电场对植被的影响,需要综合利用遥感监测及生态学调查方法,才能准确识别不同陆地生态系统植被对风电场的响应机制。另外,从植被所在的生态系统类型上看,目前的研究主要集中在草地生态系统,对森林及湿地植被的影响尚未被认识,以致风电场对陆地生态系统植被的影响没有被完整理解。
(4) 研究风电场对生态系统碳、氮循环的影响,要加强地表实测数据的获取,尤其是多年连续的数据获取,以形成长期的观测序列,进行时空尺度分析。这对客观认识风能利弊,增强对陆地生态系统碳、氮循环的理解,以及对草业、林业、湿地资源的可更新性、可持续性利用均具有重要意义。
(5) 风电场对环境的影响与其周围地区的自然地理条件密切相关,因此风电场对各环境要素的影响并不会完全一致,甚至存在显著差异的可能。通过在全球范围内建立典型实验区的形式,以典型区的研究来反映全球范围内的共性问题,也许是目前较为可行的方法。
(6) 风电场对环境的影响是一个长期的、累积的过程,由于全球气候的多样性、地表类型的复杂性,使得准确揭示风电场对全球环境的影响还需大量深入的科学研究。在确保风能作为新能源发展重点的同时,还需要保护整个陆地生态系统的生产力和生物多样性。准确评价、处理风电场与可持续发展的关系是要解决的最终问题。
(7) 风电场对环境的影响是长期和复杂的,但现有环评导则和标准对上述影响的考虑却极为不足,甚至并未考虑。随着风能、太阳能等新型能源的发展,现有的环评导则和标准能否作为风电场等新能源建设的环境评价标准还需要进一步商榷。
(8) 目前,中国作为世界风能利用的第一大国,与美国、德国等风能利用大国相比,受政策导向、风电场建设起步晚等因素制约,无论在风电场建设区域的选择上,还是在评价风电场对气候、陆地生态系统、噪声及电磁辐射的影响方面均研究不足。特别是,由于目前中国尚未建立有关长期定位观测试验站,探讨风电场对环境的影响还缺少定量化、全过程、时空尺度的细致研究。未来,需要适时建立长期定位观测试验站,以利于进一步开展相关研究。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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研究了风电场的建设对周边扰动区域土壤养分和植被的影响.结果表 明:风电场的建设增加了扰动区域土壤容重、pH和总孔隙度,降低了土壤电导率、含水量和全盐,同时也降低了植被生长各指标和土壤养分(除了土壤全磷)等; 在扰动区域(0～3 km),植被生长各指标和土壤养分均随远离风电场距离的增加而增加,距离风电场4 km时,植被生长各指标和土壤养分基本与未扰动区域达到一致,初步表明了风电场对于植被和土壤养分的影响范围均在方圆3 km以内;风电场扰动区域土壤微生物量的变化幅度和变异系数最大,说明风电场对土壤微生物量的空间变异影响较大;风电场扰动区域和非扰动区域土壤养分均随 土层深度的增加而逐渐降低趋势,表现出明显的“表聚性”,而土壤深层(40-60cm)未扰动区和扰动区土壤养分基本一致,表明了风电场的建设并没有改变 土壤养分的垂直分布特征,也并未影响深层土壤养分含量;风电场未扰动区域植被与土壤因子相关性基本与扰动区域相一致,表明风电场对周边区域植被和土壤均有 影响,而此影响具有同等的重要性,也即同等程度下影响了植被和土壤因子,同时也体现了植被和土壤因子的互作效应.
Effect of wind power site construction on soil nutrients and vegetation of the surrounding disturbed region [J].
研究了风电场的建设对周边扰动区域土壤养分和植被的影响.结果表 明:风电场的建设增加了扰动区域土壤容重、pH和总孔隙度,降低了土壤电导率、含水量和全盐,同时也降低了植被生长各指标和土壤养分(除了土壤全磷)等; 在扰动区域(0～3 km),植被生长各指标和土壤养分均随远离风电场距离的增加而增加,距离风电场4 km时,植被生长各指标和土壤养分基本与未扰动区域达到一致,初步表明了风电场对于植被和土壤养分的影响范围均在方圆3 km以内;风电场扰动区域土壤微生物量的变化幅度和变异系数最大,说明风电场对土壤微生物量的空间变异影响较大;风电场扰动区域和非扰动区域土壤养分均随 土层深度的增加而逐渐降低趋势,表现出明显的“表聚性”,而土壤深层(40-60cm)未扰动区和扰动区土壤养分基本一致,表明了风电场的建设并没有改变 土壤养分的垂直分布特征,也并未影响深层土壤养分含量;风电场未扰动区域植被与土壤因子相关性基本与扰动区域相一致,表明风电场对周边区域植被和土壤均有 影响,而此影响具有同等的重要性,也即同等程度下影响了植被和土壤因子,同时也体现了植被和土壤因子的互作效应.
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风力发电“偷走”北京的风[N]. 北京科技报,
Fengli fadian "touzou" Beijing de feng[N]. Beijing Science and Technology News,
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人民网. 2015. 华能江苏启东风力发电场噪声扰民 [EB/OL].People Net. 2015. Huaneng Jiangsu Qidong Fengli Fadianchang zaosheng raomin [EB/OL]. |
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高速差分传输线的电磁辐射分析与测试 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-1576.2012.10.023 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
为了减小差分传输线的电磁辐 射,改善电子系统的电磁兼容特性,在分析传输线及电磁辐射理论的基础上,结合频谱仪和EMSCAN等测试仪器,对标准SATA 2.0传输线的电磁辐射进行测试,并分析此高速串行差分线的电磁辐射测试结果,得出减小差分传输线电磁辐射的方法。该研究可为实际工程应用提供参考。
Analysis and test of high-speed difference transmission line electromagnetic radiation [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-1576.2012.10.023 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
为了减小差分传输线的电磁辐 射,改善电子系统的电磁兼容特性,在分析传输线及电磁辐射理论的基础上,结合频谱仪和EMSCAN等测试仪器,对标准SATA 2.0传输线的电磁辐射进行测试,并分析此高速串行差分线的电磁辐射测试结果,得出减小差分传输线电磁辐射的方法。该研究可为实际工程应用提供参考。
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风电场工程对盐城自然保护区的累积生态影响研究[D] .Fengdianchang gongcheng dui Yancheng Ziran Baohuqu de leiji shengtai yingxiang yanjiu[D]. |
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天长市农委渔业局. 2012. 风电项目致螃蟹养殖场河蟹大量死亡 [EB/OL].Tianchang Agricultural Bureau of Fisheries. 2012. Fengdian xiangmu zhi pangxie yangzhichang hexie daliang siwang [EB/OL]. |
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辉腾锡勒草原风电场开发运营植被响应分析研究[D] .Study on vegetation response to development and operation of wind farm in Huitengxile Grassland[D]. |
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风电场对电磁环境的影响分析 [J].URL 摘要
介绍了目前国家的风电发展规划以及风电场的建设现状,分析了风电场对电磁环境产生影响的潜在危害,并针对风电场电磁环境影响评估的薄弱环节,提出了基本的评估要素、方法和流程,给出了风电场工程规划过程中避免或减弱电磁环境影响的几点参考建议,最后总结了电磁影响评估工作在风电场规划建设中的作用及意义,从而可以为风电场的建设规划论证及电磁环境保护提供非常重要的借鉴作用.
Analysis of the influence of wind farm on electromagnetic environment [J].URL 摘要
介绍了目前国家的风电发展规划以及风电场的建设现状,分析了风电场对电磁环境产生影响的潜在危害,并针对风电场电磁环境影响评估的薄弱环节,提出了基本的评估要素、方法和流程,给出了风电场工程规划过程中避免或减弱电磁环境影响的几点参考建议,最后总结了电磁影响评估工作在风电场规划建设中的作用及意义,从而可以为风电场的建设规划论证及电磁环境保护提供非常重要的借鉴作用.
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| [13] |
干旱区风电场对局地微气象环境的影响研究: 以苏尼特右旗朱日和风电场为例[D] .
The impact of wind farm on local micro meteorological environment in arid region-taking Zhurihe Wind Farm as an example[D].
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风电场对气候变化影响研究进展 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1719.2011.06.003 URL Magsci 摘要
综述了国际评估风电场对局地和全球气候变化的短期和较长期的可能 影响,并且将其影响与人类排放的影响作简单的对比.大量的观测和数值模拟研究表明,风电场的运行明显减小下游风速,同时随局地近地层稳定度的不同也造成下 游温度明显上升或下降.一些数值模拟研究表明,如果全球建立大量大型风电场,例如假定全球使用风能占总能源10％以上,即全球陆地的30％～ 40％和全球海洋浅水区均建有风电场,这些风电场的运行将可能造成全球变暖和风速减小.目前风电场对全球气候的影响尚具有很大的不确定性.
Advances in assessment on impacts of wind farms upon climate change [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-1719.2011.06.003 URL Magsci 摘要
综述了国际评估风电场对局地和全球气候变化的短期和较长期的可能 影响,并且将其影响与人类排放的影响作简单的对比.大量的观测和数值模拟研究表明,风电场的运行明显减小下游风速,同时随局地近地层稳定度的不同也造成下 游温度明显上升或下降.一些数值模拟研究表明,如果全球建立大量大型风电场,例如假定全球使用风能占总能源10％以上,即全球陆地的30％～ 40％和全球海洋浅水区均建有风电场,这些风电场的运行将可能造成全球变暖和风速减小.目前风电场对全球气候的影响尚具有很大的不确定性.
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| [15] |
Impact of wind turbine sound on general health, sleep disturbance and annoyance of workers: A pilot- study in Manjil Wind Farm, Iran [J].https://doi.org/10.1186/s40201-015-0225-8 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
BACKGROUND: The wind turbine's sound seems to have a proportional effect on health of people living near to wind farms. This study aimed to investigate the effect of noise emitted from wind turbines on general health, sleep and annoyance among workers of manjil wind farm, Iran. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total number of 53 workers took part in this study. Based on the type of job, they were categorized into three groups of maintenance, security and office staff. The persons' exposure at each job-related group was measured by eight-hour equivalent sound level (LAeq, 8聽h). A Noise annoyance scale, Epworth sleepiness scale and 28-item general health questionnaire was used for gathering data from workers. The data were analyzed through Multivariate Analysis of variance (MANOVA) test, Pillai's Trace test, Paired comparisons analysis and Multivariate regression test were used in the R software. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The results showed that, response variables (annoyance, sleep disturbance and health) were significantly different between job groups. The results also indicated that sleep disturbance as well as noise exposure had a significant effect on general health. Noise annoyance and distance from wind turbines could significantly explain about 44.5 and 34.2聽% of the variance in sleep disturbance and worker's general health, respectively. General health was significantly different in different age groups while age had no significant impact on sleep disturbance. The results were reverse for distance because it had no significant impact on health, but sleep disturbance was significantly affected. CONCLUSIONS: We came to this conclusion that wind turbines noise can directly impact on annoyance, sleep and health. This type of energy generation can have potential health risks for wind farm workers. However, further research is needed to confirm the results of this study.
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A framework towards a composite indicator for urban ecosystem services [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.035 URL 摘要
This article describes a composite indicator for ecosystem services. This composite is composed of several sub-indices, each representing either land use types or ecosystem services. While the overall composite indicates a general overview of the performance of a system in terms of ecosystem services provision, the sub-indices provide sources of variation. Taking into consideration potential trade-offs between making the framework complex and keeping it simple, the composite was developed on two levels. The first level, a simpler one, requires few indicators and therefore needs less data as inputs. The second level, in contrast, is more complex requiring more indicators, involving more detailed measurements, and therefore can be applied with more confidence.
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Soil-carbon response to warming dependent on microbial physiology [J].https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo846 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Most ecosystem models predict that climate warming will stimulate microbial decomposition of soil carbon, producing a positive feedback to rising global temperatures. Although field experiments document an initial increase in the loss of CO2 from soils in response to warming, in line with these predictions, the carbon dioxide loss from soils tends to decline to control levels within a few years...
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Offshore wind farms-ecological effects of noise and habitat alteration on fish[D]. Stockholm, Sweden:
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Implications of wind power generation: Exposure to wind turbine noise [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.478 URL 摘要
The current study aims at analysing the perception and opinions of people exposed to Wind Turbine (WT) noise. Noise measurements were carried out in a wind farm in the north of Portugal. Data were analysed and crossed with the answers to a survey applied in four nearby villages. Although the noise levels were generally low, it was found that the direct visibility of the WT makes people feel more annoyed and also more sensitive to noise. Finally, it seems that the economic interests that exposed people may have in WT did not significantly affect their annoyance. Noise annoyance perception rather seems to be related to specific aspects, such as the general opinion of people about wind power generation.
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Wind farm and solar park effects on plant-soil carbon cycling: Uncertain impacts of changes in ground-level microclimate [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12437 URL PMID: 24132939 Magsci 摘要
Abstract Top of page Abstract Introduction LBR effects on microclimate Microclimate effects on plant–soil carbon cycling Direct effects on plant–soil carbon cycling Indirect effects on soil carbon cycling Interactive effects Future research and conclusions Acknowledgements References Global energy demand is increasing as greenhouse gas driven climate change progresses, making renewable energy sources critical to future sustainable power provision. Land-based wind and solar electricity generation technologies are rapidly expanding, yet our understanding of their operational effects on biological carbon cycling in hosting ecosystems is limited. Wind turbines and photovoltaic panels can significantly change local ground-level climate by a magnitude that could affect the fundamental plant–soil processes that govern carbon dynamics. We believe that understanding the possible effects of changes in ground-level microclimates on these phenomena is crucial to reducing uncertainty of the true renewable energy carbon cost and to maximize beneficial effects. In this Opinions article, we examine the potential for the microclimatic effects of these land-based renewable energy sources to alter plant–soil carbon cycling, hypothesize likely effects and identify critical knowledge gaps for future carbon research.
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A numerical approach for planning offshore wind farms from regional to local scales over the Mediterranean [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.06.038 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Renewable energy resources, such as wind, are available worldwide. Locating areas with high and continual wind sources are crucial in pre-planning of wind farms. Vast offshore areas are characterized by higher and more reliable wind resources in comparison with continental areas. However, offshore wind energy production is in a quite preliminary phase. Elaborating the potential productivity of wind farms over such areas is challenging due to sparse in situ observations. The Mediterranean basin is not an exception. In this study we are proposing numerical simulations of near-surface wind fields from regional climate models (RCMs) in order to obtain and fill the gaps in observations over the Mediterranean basin. Four simulations produced with two regional climate models are examined here. Remote sensing observations (QuikSCAT satellite) are used to assess the skill of the simulated fields. A technique for estimating the potential energy from the wind fields over the region is introduced. The wind energy potential atlas and the map of a wind turbine's functional range are presented, locating the potentially interesting sub-regions for wind farms. The ability of models to reproduce the annual cycle and the probability density function of wind speed anomalies are detailed for specified sub-regions.
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Microbial contributions to climate change through carbon cycle feedbacks [J].https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2008.58 URL PMID: 18615117 摘要
ABSTRACT There is considerable interest in understanding the biological mechanisms that regulate carbon exchanges between the land and atmosphere, and how these exchanges respond to climate change. An understanding of soil microbial ecology is central to our ability to assess terrestrial carbon cycle-climate feedbacks, but the complexity of the soil microbial community and the many ways that it can be affected by climate and other global changes hampers our ability to draw firm conclusions on this topic. In this paper, we argue that to understand the potential negative and positive contributions of soil microbes to land-atmosphere carbon exchange and global warming requires explicit consideration of both direct and indirect impacts of climate change on microorganisms. Moreover, we argue that this requires consideration of complex interactions and feedbacks that occur between microbes, plants and their physical environment in the context of climate change, and the influence of other global changes which have the capacity to amplify climate-driven effects on soil microbes. Overall, we emphasize the urgent need for greater understanding of how soil microbial ecology contributes to land-atmosphere carbon exchange in the context of climate change, and identify some challenges for the future. In particular, we highlight the need for a multifactor experimental approach to understand how soil microbes and their activities respond to climate change and consequences for carbon cycle feedbacks.
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Effects of offshore wind farms on marine wildlife: A generalized impact assessment [J].https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/3/034012 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Marine management plans over the world express high expectations to the development of offshore wind energy. This would obviously contribute to renewable energy production, but potential conflicts with other usages of the marine landscape, as well as conservation interests, are evident. The present study synthesizes the current state of understanding on the effects of offshore wind farms on marine wildlife, in order to identify general versus local conclusions in published studies. The results were translated into a generalized impact assessment for coastal waters in Sweden, which covers a range of salinity conditions from marine to nearly fresh waters. Hence, the conclusions are potentially applicable to marine planning situations in various aquatic ecosystems. The assessment considered impact with respect to temporal and spatial extent of the pressure, effect within each ecosystem component, and level of certainty. Research on the environmental effects of offshore wind farms has gone through a rapid maturation and learning process, with the bulk of knowledge being developed within the past ten years. The studies showed a high level of consensus with respect to the construction phase, indicating that potential impacts on marine life should be carefully considered in marine spatial planning. Potential impacts during the operational phase were more locally variable, and could be either negative or positive depending on biological conditions as well as prevailing management goals. There was paucity in studies on cumulative impacts and long-term effects on the food web, as well as on combined effects with other human activities, such as the fisheries. These aspects remain key open issues for a sustainable marine spatial planning.
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Mapping ecosystem service supply, demand and budgets [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.06.019 URL 摘要
Among the main effects of human activities on the environment are land use and resulting land cover changes. Such changes impact the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods and services to the human society. This supply of multiple goods and services by nature should match the demands of the society, if self-sustaining human鈥揺nvironmental systems and a sustainable utilization of natural capital are to be achieved. To describe respective states and dynamics, appropriate indicators and data for their quantification, including quantitative and qualitative assessments, are needed. By linking land cover information from, e.g. remote sensing, land survey and GIS with data from monitoring, statistics, modeling or interviews, ecosystem service supply and demand can be assessed and transferred to different spatial and temporal scales. The results reveal patterns of human activities over time and space as well as the capacities of different ecosystems to provide ecosystem services under changing land use. Also the locations of respective demands for these services can be determined. As maps are powerful tools, they hold high potentials for visualization of complex phenomena. We present an easy-to-apply concept based on a matrix linking spatially explicit biophysical landscape units to ecological integrity, ecosystem service supply and demand. An exemplary application for energy supply and demand in a central German case study region and respective maps for the years 1990 and 2007 are presented. Based on these data, the concept for an appropriate quantification and related spatial visualization of ecosystem service supply and demand is elaborated and discussed.
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A review on clean energy solutions for better sustainability [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/er.3329 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper focuses on clean energy solutions in order to achieve better sustainability, and hence discusses opportunities and challenges from various dimensions, including social, economic, energetic and environmental aspects. It also evaluates the current and potential states and applications of possible clean鈥恊nergy systems. In the first part of this study, renewable and nuclear energy sources are comparatively assessed and ranked based on their outputs. By ranking energy sources based on technical, economic, and environmental performance criteria, it is aimed to identify the improvement potential for each option considered. The results show that in power generation, nuclear has the highest (7.06/10) and solar photovoltaic (PV) has the lowest (2.30/10). When nonair pollution criteria, such as land use, water contamination, and waste issues are considered, the power generation ranking changes, and geothermal has the best (7.23/10) and biomass has the lowest performance (3.72/10). When heating and cooling modes are considered as useful outputs, geothermal and biomass have approximately the same technical, environmental, and cost performances (as 4.9/10), and solar has the lowest ranking (2/10). Among hydrogen production energy sources, nuclear gives the highest (6.5/10) and biomass provides the lowest (3.6/10) in ranking. In the second part of the present study, multigeneration systems are introduced, and their potential benefits are discussed along with the recent studies in the literature. It is shown that numerous advantages are offered by renewable energy鈥恇ased integrated systems with multiple outputs, especially in reducing overall energy demand, system cost and emissions while significantly improving overall efficiencies and hence output generation rates. Copyright 漏 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Avian collisions with wind turbines: A summary of existing studies and comparisons to other sources of avian collision mortality in the United States National Wind Coordinating Committee resource document[R]. Washington DC:
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Changes in vegetation in northern Alaska under scenarios of climate change, 2003-2100: Implications for climate feedbacks [J].https://doi.org/10.1890/08-0806.1 URL PMID: 19544741 [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Assessing potential future changes in arctic and boreal plant species productivity, ecosystem composition, and canopy complexity is essential for understanding environmental responses under expected altered climate forcing. We examined potential changes in the dominant plant functional types (PFTs) of the sedge tundra, shrub tundra, and boreal forest ecosystems in ecotonal northern Alaska, USA, for the years 2003-2100. We compared energy feedbacks associated with increases in biomass to energy feedbacks associated with changes in the duration of the snow-free season. We based our simulations on nine input climate scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and a new version of the Terrestrial Ecosystem Model (TEM) that incorporates biogeochemistry, vegetation dynamics for multiple PFTs (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses, sedges, mosses), multiple vegetation pools, and soil thermal regimes. We found mean increases in net primary productivity (NPP) in all PFTs. Most notably, birch (Betula spp.) in the shrub tundra showed increases that were at least three times larger than any other PFT. Increases in NPP were positively related to increases in growing-season length in the sedge tundra, but PFTs in boreal forest and shrub tundra showed a significant response to changes in light availability as well as growing-season length. Significant NPP responses to changes in vegetation uptake of nitrogen by PFT indicated that some PFTs were better competitors for nitrogen than other PFTs. While NPP increased, heterotrophic respiration (RH) also increased, resulting in decreases or no change in net ecosystem carbon uptake. Greater aboveground biomass from increased NPP produced a decrease in summer albedo, greater regional heat absorption (0.34 +/- 0.23 W x m(-2) x 10 yr(-1) [mean +/- SD]), and a positive feedback to climate warming. However, the decrease in albedo due to a shorter snow season (-5.1 +/- 1.6 d/10 yr) resulted in much greater regional heat absorption (3.3 +/- 1.24 W x m(-2) x 10 yr(-1)) than that associated with increases in vegetation. Through quantifying feedbacks associated with changes in vegetation and those associated with changes in the snow season length, we can reach a more integrated understanding of the manner in which climate change may impact interactions between high-latitude ecosystems and the climate system.
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Effects of wind farm construction and operation on mire and wet heath vegetation in the Monte Maior SCI, north-west Spain [J].URL 摘要
As part of the environmental impact assessment for the construction of a wind farm within the Monte Maior Natura 2000 Site of Community Importance (SCI) in Galicia, north-west Spain, a complete analysis of the development site's important mire and wet heath plant communities was performed. The study included phytosociological characterisation, species-area metrics, calculation of α and β divers...
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Overview of wind power generation in China: Status and development [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.005 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Wind power generation has increased rapidly in China over the last decade. In this paper the authors present an extensive survey on the status and development of wind power generation in China. The wind resource distributions in China are presented and assessed, and the 10GW-scale wind power generation bases are introduced in details. The domestic research status of main components of WP system is then elaborated, followed by an evaluation of the wind power equipment manufacturers. Finally, the outlook for the development of the wind power utilization in China is presented.
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The effect of a giant wind farm on precipitation in a regional climate model [J].https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045101 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is employed as a nested regional climate model to study the effect of a giant wind farm on warm-season precipitation in the eastern two-thirds of the USA. The boundary conditions for WRF are supplied by 62聽years of NCEP/NCAR (National Center for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research) global reanalysis. In the model, the presence of a mid-west wind farm, either giant or small, can have an enormous impact on the weather and the amount of precipitation for one season, which is consistent with the known sensitivity of long-term weather forecasts to initial conditions. The effect on climate is less strong. In the average precipitation of 62 warm seasons, there is a statistically significant 1.0% enhancement of precipitation in a multi-state area surrounding and to the south-east of the wind farm.
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Climate impacts of large-scale wind farms as parameterized in a global climate model [J].
The local, regional and global climate impacts of a large-scale global deployment of wind power in regionally high densities over land is investigated for a 60 year period. Wind farms are represented as elevated momentum sinks, as well as enhanced turbulence to represent turbine blade mixing in a global climate model, the Community Atmosphere Model version 5 (CAM5). For a total installed capacity of 2.5 TW, to provide 16% of the world's projected electricity demand in 2050, minimal impacts are found, both regionally and globally, on temperature, sensible and latent heat fluxes, cloud and precipitation. A mean near-surface warming of 0.12+/-0.07 K is seen within the wind farms. Impacts on wind speed and turbulence are more pronounced, but largely confined to within the wind farm areas. Increasing the wind farm areas to provide an installed capacity of 10 TW, or 65% of the 2050 electricity demand, causes further impacts, however, they remain slight overall. Maximum temperature changes are less than 0.5 K in the wind farm areas. Impacts, both within the wind farms and beyond, become more pronounced with a doubling in turbine density, to provide 20 TW of installed capacity, or 130% of the 2050 electricity demand. However, maximum temperature changes remain less than 0.7 K. Representing wind farms instead as an increase in surface roughness generally produces similar mean results, however, maximum changes increase and influences on wind and turbulence are exaggerated. Overall, wind farm impacts are much weaker than those expected from greenhouse gas emissions, with global mean climate impacts very slight.
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| [32] |
The making of a second-generation wind farm efficiency model complex [J].https://doi.org/10.1002/we.351 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract The paper presents research to develop a model complex that takes into account the interaction between the wind farm and the atmosphere, and between closely spaced wind farms. Six models have been reviewed and developed/adapted for use in wind farm modelling, covering scales from several hundred kilometres down to the size of the individual wind turbine. Flow within wind farms is difficult to predict. The analytical and modified WAsP/park models show promise; however, these require further development/evaluation. For the flow downwind of the wind farm, several intermediate-scale models fit the available data rather well, and may be candidates for the other half of the two-model complex which we aim at building. Copyright 漏 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Assessing vulnerability of marine bird populations to offshore wind farms [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.01.025 URL PMID: 23454414 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Offshore wind farms may affect bird populations through collision mortality and displacement. Given the pressures to develop offshore wind farms, there is an urgent need to assess population-level impacts on protected marine birds. Here we refine an approach to assess aspects of their ecology that influence population vulnerability to wind farm impacts, also taking into account the conservation importance of each species. Flight height appears to be a key factor influencing collision mortality risk but improved data on flight heights of marine birds are needed. Collision index calculations identify populations of gulls, white-tailed eagles, northern gannets and skuas as of particularly high concern in Scottish waters. Displacement index calculations identify populations of divers and common scoters as most vulnerable to population-level impacts of displacement, but these are likely to be less evident than impacts of collision mortality. The collision and displacement indices developed here for Scottish marine bird populations could be applied to populations elsewhere, and this approach will help in identifying likely impacts of future offshore wind farms on marine birds and prioritising monitoring programmes, at least until data on macro-avoidance rates become available.
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Quantifying the value of improved wind energy forecasts in a pool-based electricity market [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.02.023 URL [本文引用: 8] 摘要
This work illustrates the influence of wind forecast errors on system costs, wind curtailment and generator dispatch in a system with high wind penetration. Realistic wind forecasts of different specified accuracy levels are created using an auto-regressive moving average model and these are then used in the creation of day-ahead unit commitment schedules. The schedules are generated for a model of the 2020 Irish electricity system with 33% wind penetration using both stochastic and deterministic approaches. Improvements in wind forecast accuracy are demonstrated to deliver: (i) clear savings in total system costs for deterministic and, to a lesser extent, stochastic scheduling; (ii) a decrease in the level of wind curtailment, with close agreement between stochastic and deterministic scheduling; and (iii) a decrease in the dispatch of open cycle gas turbine generation, evident with deterministic, and to a lesser extent, with stochastic scheduling.
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A review of wind energy technologies [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2005.08.004 URL Magsci [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Energy is an essential ingredient of socio-economic development and economic growth. Renewable energy sources like wind energy is indigenous and can help in reducing the dependency on fossil fuels. Wind is the indirect form of solar energy and is always being replenished by the sun. Wind is caused by differential heating of the earth's surface by the sun. It has been estimated that roughly 10 million MW of energy are continuously available in the earth's wind. Wind energy provides a variable and environmental friendly option and national energy security at a time when decreasing global reserves of fossil fuels threatens the long-term sustainability of global economy. This paper reviews the wind resources assessment models, site selection models and aerodynamic models including wake effect. The different existing performance and reliability evaluation models, various problems related to wind turbine components (blade, gearbox, generator and transformer) and grid for wind energy system have been discussed. This paper also reviews different techniques and loads for design, control systems and economics of wind energy conversion system.
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Effects of wind farms on Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) in southern Spain [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.07.040 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
To study the potential impact of wind turbines and associated structures on Montagu's harriers Circus pygargus , we located 111 nests over five years (18鈥28 nests per year) and compared their distances to several features (natural and anthropogenic) between wind farm pre- and post-construction periods using a before鈥揳fter (BA) study design. We analysed abundance and density of nests and colonies through the study period. We also fitted a predictive model of nest occurrence using distance-to-feature variables and habitat as predictors. Lastly, Montagu's harrier fatalities from collision with wind turbines were estimated. No differences were detected between pre- and post-construction periods in nest or colony abundances. We found that harriers nested closer to the locations of wind turbines and power lines after wind farm construction, although distance to closest track did not change. We detected a higher spatial aggregation of Montagu's harrier nests after wind farms were installed, when the distribution of nests was mostly explained by habitat and distance to the closest track. Distance to wind turbine was apparently not influential. Fatality through collision was relatively uncommon during the study period. Our findings demonstrate that the construction, operation and maintenance of wind farms did not seem to adversely affect Montagu's harrier nesting decisions in our study area. However, we encourage further studies including reproductive parameters and foraging strategies of Montagu's harrier to provide a complete investigation of potential impacts of wind farms on this species.
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WindNet: Improving the impact assessment of wind power projects [J].https://doi.org/10.3934/energy.2014.4.461 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Growing international demand for renewable energy has led to rapid growth in the wind power sector and wind farms are becoming an increasingly common feature of landscapes and seascapes in many countries. However, as the most appropriate locations within established markets are taken up, and as wind power penetrates new markets, there is an increasing likelihood that proposed projects will encroach on sensitive landscapes and residential areas. This will present challenges for the industry, particularly due to the impact that public opinion can have upon the outcomes of planning decisions about specific projects. This article introduces the four key dimensions of the WindNet programme, which are helping to elucidate some of the socio-technical debates that will likely shape the future of the wind power sector. The article outlines studies investigating (1) public responses to cumulative landscape and visual impacts, (2) the auditory impact of wind power projects on human health, (3) the science of wind farm design and its implications for planning, and (4) the relevance of the democratic deficit explanation of the so-called 鈥渟ocial gap鈥 in wind farm siting. The outcomes of the research being conducted by WindNet stand to help reduce uncertainty within the planning process and assist in providing a more comprehensive and fairer assessment of the possible impacts associated with wind power project development.
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The influence of large-scale wind power on global climate [J].https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406930101 URL PMID: 15536131 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Large-scale use of wind power can alter local and global climate by extracting kinetic energy and altering turbulent transport in the atmospheric boundary layer. We report climate-model simulations that address the possible climatic impacts of wind power at regional to global scales by using two general circulation models and several parameterizations of the interaction of wind turbines with the boundary layer. We find that very large amounts of wind power can produce nonnegligible climatic change at continental scales. Although large-scale effects are observed, wind power has a negligible effect on global-mean surface temperature, and it would deliver enormous global benefits by reducing emissions of CO(2) and air pollutants. Our results may enable a comparison between the climate impacts due to wind power and the reduction in climatic impacts achieved by the substitution of wind for fossil fuels.
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Assessing noise from wind farm developments in Ireland: A consideration of critical wind speeds and turbine choice [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.016 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Wind farms are becoming increasingly popular in Ireland in an effort to increase the production of green energy within the state. As with any infrastructural development, wind farms must consider potential environmental impacts prior to construction. One particular issue that must be examined is the emission of noise from the development. In Ireland wind farm developments must adhere to planning conditions that usually outline permissible noise levels for both the construction and operational phases of the development. The critical wind speed is often cited as the wind speed at which these limits apply. This paper examines how the critical wind speed is determined and investigates its relationship with background noise levels and turbine choice. The study consisted of ten one-week monitoring periods during which meteorological conditions and background noise levels were simultaneously recorded. It was found that the critical wind speed is non-transferable, i.e. it depends on both the turbine choice and background noise environment and is specific to that particular turbine/site combination. Furthermore the critical wind speed during the night-time is often different to the overall critical wind speed suggesting that future noise studies should consider a range of critical wind speeds, particularly for night-time noise assessments.
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Environmental impact assessment of wind generators in the Czech Republic [J].https://doi.org/10.2478/v10026-011-0031-8 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The article summarizes author′s experience with environmental impact assessment in branch of wind generators. The introductorypart of paper describes legislative obligations of the Czech Republic in frame of fulfilling the European Union′s limits in branch ofrenewable energy resources utilization. Next part of paper deals with analysis of impacts of wind generators on the environment.The final part of paper deals with experience with implementation of the environmental impact assessment process (pursuant to the ActNo. 100/2001 Coll.) in the field of wind power in the Czech Republic.
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A discussion of wind turbine interaction and stall contributions to wind farm noise [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2014.01.007 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Wind farms have recently been reported to produce a noise signature that is described as possessing a “thumping” quality. Measurements of these signatures are limited and their effects are debated but their effect on public opinion and complaints make them a concern for researchers in this field. Proposed reasons for these noise signatures include amplitude modulation, interference patterns and wake–rotor interaction. This paper discusses these effects and concludes that wake–rotor interaction plays a role by causing variations in turbulent-inflow noise and dynamic stall. The current state of research into stall noise and wind turbine wake structure is also reviewed and it is concluded that the available information and collected data on wind turbine wake are insufficient to determine how strong this role is. More information on the velocity and turbulence fields in the wake of horizontal-axis wind turbines as well as a characterisation of the noise produced by an airfoil experiencing dynamic stall is required in order to make a full assessment of rotor–wake contributions to wind farm noise.
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The rate of permafrost carbon release under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and its potential effects on climate [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02519.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
<title type="main">Abstract Recent observations suggest that permafrost thaw may create two completely different soil environments: aerobic in relatively well-drained uplands and anaerobic in poorly drained wetlands. The soil oxygen availability will dictate the rate of permafrost carbon release as carbon dioxide (CO) and as methane (CH), and the overall effects of these emitted greenhouse gases on climate. The objective of this study was to quantify CO and CH release over a 500-day period from permafrost soil under aerobic and anaerobic conditions in the laboratory and to compare the potential effects of these emissions on future climate by estimating their relative climate forcing. We used permafrost soils collected from Alaska and Siberia with varying organic matter characteristics and simultaneously incubated them under aerobic and anaerobic conditions to determine rates of CO and CH production. Over 500 days of soil incubation at 15 掳C, we observed that carbon released under aerobic conditions was 3.9-10.0 times greater than anaerobic conditions. When scaled by greenhouse warming potential to account for differences between CO and CH, relative climate forcing ranged between 1.5 and 7.1. Carbon release in organic soils was nearly 20 times greater than mineral soils on a per gram soil basis, but when compared on a per gram carbon basis, deep permafrost mineral soils showed carbon release rates similar to organic soils for some soil types. This suggests that permafrost carbon may be very labile, but that there are significant differences across soil types depending on the processes that controlled initial permafrost carbon accumulation within a particular landscape. Overall, our study showed that, independent of soil type, permafrost carbon in a relatively aerobic upland ecosystems may have a greater effect on climate when compared with a similar amount of permafrost carbon thawing in an anaerobic environment, despite the release of CH that occurs in anaerobic conditions.
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Wind energy development and its environmental impact: A review [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.09.024 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Wind energy, commonly recognized to be a clean and environmentally friendly renewable energy resource that can reduce our dependency on fossil fuels, has developed rapidly in recent years. Its mature technology and comparatively low cost make it promising as an important primary energy source in the future. However, there are potential environmental impacts due to the installation and operation of the wind turbines that cannot be ignored. This paper aims to provide an overview of world wind energy scenarios, the current status of wind turbine development, development trends of offshore wind farms, and the environmental and climatic impact of wind farms. The wake effect of wind turbines and modeling studies regarding this effect are also reviewed.
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A model for simulating the soil organic carbon pool of steppe ecosystems [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10666-015-9488-9 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In this research, the improved Terrestrial Ecosystem Regional (TECO-R) model was adapted to steppe ecosystems and then utilized to simulate the soil organic carbon pool in the period from 1989 to 2011
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Simulation of soil nitrogen storage of the typical steppe with the DNDC model: A case study in Inner Mongolia, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.01.043 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Soil nutrient depletion is one of the characteristics of steppe degradation. Soil nitrogen (N) storage is an indicator of ecosystem productivity, and its simulation is necessary to monitor steppe degradation and for recovery measures. The study presents a simulation framework of soil N storage by integrating a denitrification–decomposition (DNDC) ecosystem model-based simulation and multi-source remote sensing data-based inversion. The DNDC model is a key player in the framework, whereas remote sensing prepares the input parameters and verification data. To run a DNDC model spatially, climate, soil, and vegetation databases were built, and land use, slop, grazing, and mowing parameters were formulated by remote sensing inversion. A soil N storage prediction model was established with the maximum of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) to provide comparable results with the simulation of soil N storage with the DNDC model. The results indicate that soil N storage declined from east to west throughout the study area. From 1990 to 2011, no change in the spatial distribution of soil N storage was determined, and the spatial heterogeneity of soil N storage decreased with its increase in the low-N area and decrease in the high-N area. A significant correlation ( P 02<020.01) was determined between soil N storage data detected by remote sensing inversion and that simulated with DNDC, and both estimation results of soil N storage matched well. Soil N storage simulated with the DNDC model was more sensitive to soil organic carbon (SOC), bulk density, pH and N fixation index than other parameters, and using the most sensitive factor (MSF) method, the range of annual mean soil N storage was determined to be between 2339.61 and 5484.6102kg02ha 611 . The variation in regional soil N storage in a typical steppe in Inner Mongolia, China can therefore be simulated using the DNDC model with support from remote sensing.
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Risk, reward, and payments for ecosystem services: A portfolio approach to ecosystem services and forestland investment [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.08.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This study examines the risks and returns associated with payments for ecosystem services (PES) for private forestland using modern portfolio theory. PES schemes for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation were considered. Pricing data for European carbon emissions offsets and the Finnish biodiversity conservation scheme ‘Trading in Natural Values’, and Finnish forest inventory data were used to model ex-post empirical results. The forest owner's portfolio could be comprised of either current forest management or a PES scheme with postponed harvesting; considerations for investing harvest income in equities and bonds were included. The correlation between a PES scheme's return series and timber returns was higher for the biodiversity scheme leading to relatively limited financial diversification benefits under current prices. Increasing the biodiversity conservation price level reduced this effect. For the climate scheme, removing the declining linear trend from the pricing data did not reduce the relatively greater diversification benefits. Overall these benefits were also greater on fertile forest site types than lower quality sites. These results indicate that the policy implications of designing socially efficient PES pricing include an important trade-off between increasing price risks for private landowners and decreasing marginal costs for society.
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Potential for wind-generated electricity in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175706 URL PMID: 19745149 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Wind offers an important alternative to coal as a source of energy for generation of electricity in China with the potential for substantial savings in carbon dioxide emissions. Wind fields derived from assimilated meteorological data are used to assess the potential for wind-generated electricity in China subject to the existing government-approved bidding process for new wind farms. Assuming a guaranteed price of 0.516 RMB (7.6 U.S. cents) per kilowatt-hour for delivery of electricity to the grid over an agreed initial average period of 10 years, it is concluded that wind could accommodate all of the demand for electricity projected for 2030, about twice current consumption. Electricity available at a concession price as low as 0.4 RMB per kilowatt-hour would be sufficient to displace 23% of electricity generated from coal.
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Selected aspects of building, operation and environmental impact of offshore wind power electric plants [J].https://doi.org/10.1515/pomr-2015-0021 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper describes essence of work of offshore wind power electric plants and crucial aspects of their building and operating. Prospects for development of global, European and domestic markets of offshore wind power industry have been delineated. A comparative analysis of environmental impact of an offshore and land-based 2MW wind power electric plant has been performed by using LCA method and Ecoindex – 99 (Ekowska02nik 99) modelling.
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Evaluation and measurement of magnetic field exposure at a typical high-voltage substation and its power lines [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncm326 URL PMID: 17595208 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract This study presents a survey of magnetic field measurements including those resulting from 380/154 kV power substations, which play a vital role in human body biological studies. The survey was carried out in the main power substation of Antalya, Turkey, located at the suburban region of the city, under actual loads. The paper also presents the actual magnetic field strength measured near the 380/154 kV substation and power transmission lines (380 and 154 kV) connecting to the substation. Since most part of these lines pass through a residential area, they have been included in the study, and the actual magnetic field variation around them has been investigated by comparative analysis of measured data. For the occupants working at substations, occupational exposure has been analysed with actual magnetic fields at operating locations. Induced internal electric fields and current densities in the occupants' body due to exposure to external magnetic fields produced by a conventional 380/154 kV power substation have been investigated.
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Energy systems and their impacts on marine ecosystem services [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.150 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Global warming and its link to the burning of fossil fuels has prompted many governments around the world to set legally binding greenhouse gas reduction targets which are to be partially realised through a stronger reliance on renewable (e.g. wind) and other lower carbon (i.e. natural gas and nuclear) energy commodities. The marine environment will play a key role in hosting or supporting these new energy strategies. However, it is unclear how the construction, operation and eventual decommissioning of these energy systems, and their related infrastructure, will impact the marine environment, the ecosystem services (i.e. cultural, regulating, provisioning and supporting) and in turn the benefits it provides for human well-being. This uncertainty stems from a lack of research that has synthesised into a common currency the various effects of each energy sector on marine ecosystems and the benefits humans derive from it. To address this gap, the present study reviews existing ecosystem impact studies for offshore components of nuclear, offshore wind, offshore gas and offshore oil sectors and translates them into the common language of ecosystem service impacts that can be used to evaluate current policies. The results suggest that differences exist in the way in which energy systems impact ecosystem services, with the nuclear sector having a predominantly negative impact on cultural ecosystem services; oil and gas a predominately negative impact on cultural, provisioning, regulating and supporting ecosystem services; while wind has a mix of impacts on cultural, provisioning and supporting services and an absence of studies for regulating services. This study suggests that information is still missing with regard to the full impact of these energy sectors on specific types of benefits that humans derive from the marine environment and proposes possible areas of targeted research.
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Health aspects associated with wind turbine noise-results from three field studies [J]. |
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How to mitigate impacts of wind farms on bats? A review of potential conservation measures in the European context [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2014.11.001 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Wind energy is growing worldwide as a source of power generation. Bat assemblages may be negatively affected by wind farms due to the fatality of a significant number of individuals after colliding with the moving turbines or experiencing barotrauma. The implementation of wind farms should follow standard procedures to prevent such negative impacts: avoid, reduce and offset, in what is known as the mitigation hierarchy. According to this approach avoiding impacts is the priority, followed by the minimisation of the identified impacts, and finally, when residual negative impacts still remain, those must be offset or at least compensated. This paper presents a review on conservation measures for bats and presents some guidelines within the compensation scenario, focusing on negative impacts that remain after avoidance and minimisation measures. The conservation strategies presented aim at the improvement of the ecological conditions for the bat assemblage as a whole. While developed under the European context, the proposed measures are potentially applicable elsewhere, taking into consideration the specificity of each region in terms of bat assemblages present, landscape features and policy context regarding nature and biodiversity conservation and management. An analysis of potential opportunities and constraints arising from the implementation of offset/compensation programmes and gaps in the current knowledge is also considered.
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Petz B. 2012. Fish thrive on Danish offshore wind farm [EB/OL]. |
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A quantitative-based evaluation of the environmental impact and sustainability of a proposed onshore wind farm in the United Kingdom [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.179 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In this paper, a quantitative-based evaluation of the environmental impact of a proposed wind farm is presented using the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM). The paper uses the revised Environmental Statement of the Grove Farm Wind Energy Project, which was rejected during the planning decision consent stage initially and upheld on appeal. The paper evaluates quantitatively the potential impact of an onshore wind farm at the construction and operation stages. Based on the RIAM evaluation conducted, the paper then goes on to apply a mathematical model to the results to determine the indicated potential level and nature of sustainability of the proposed wind farm. The results indicate that the Grove Farm project was deemed, as a whole, detrimental to the environment鈥揾uman system, particularly in respect to impacts to visual amenity and cultural heritage. The application of the model to the RIAM indicated that in both the construction and operation stages, the project was considered as unsustainable. The results obtained raised legitimate questions as to the benefits of such projects as a major contributor to the UK壮s renewable and sustainable energy mix.
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Wind-turbine noise: What audiologists should know [J].
ABSTRACT modern wind turbines is not known to cause hearing loss, but the low-frequency noise and vibration emitted by wind turbines may have adverse health effects on humans and may become an important community noise concern.
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Simulating impacts of wind farms on local hydrometeorology [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2010.12.013 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Wind power is one of the fastest growing energy sources in the world, most of the growth being in large wind farms that are often located on agricultural land near residential communities. This study explores the possible impacts of such wind farms on local hydrometeorology using a mesoscale model equipped with a rotor parameterization based on data from a commercial wind turbine. Results show that wind farms significantly affect near-surface air temperature and humidity as well as surface sensible and latent heat fluxes. The signs of the impacts, i.e., increase or decrease, depend on the static stability and total water mixing ratio lapse rates of the atmosphere. The magnitudes of these impacts are not only constrained by the hub-height wind speed but also depend to some extent on the size of the wind farms. Wind farms also affect the hydrometeorology of an area up to 18-23 km downwind. More work is required to conclusively estimate the length-scale of wind farm wakes. This study is one of the first few to provide realistic estimates of possible impacts of wind farms. The model developed and used in this study can help in assessing and addressing the environmental impacts of wind farms thereby ensuring the long-term sustainability of wind power.
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| [57] |
Can large wind farms affect local meteorology [J].https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004763 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
ABSTRACT 1] The RAMS model was used to explore the possible impacts of a large wind farm in the Great Plains region on the local meteorology over synoptic timescales under typical summertime conditions. A wind turbine was approximated as a sink of energy and source of turbulence. The wind farm was created by assuming an array of such turbines. Results show that the wind farm significantly slows down the wind at the turbine hub-height level. Additionally, turbulence generated by rotors create eddies that can enhance vertical mixing of momentum, heat, and scalars, usually leading to a warming and drying of the surface air and reduced surface sensible heat flux. This effect is most intense in the early morning hours when the boundary layer is stably stratified and the hub-height level wind speed is the strongest due to the nocturnal low-level jet. The impact on evapotranspiration is small.
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Electromagnetic interference from wind turbines [
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Impacts of wind farms on surface air temperatures [J].https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000493107 URL PMID: 20921371 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Utility-scale large wind farms are rapidly growing in size and numbers all over the world. Data from a meteorological field campaign show that such wind farms can significantly affect near-surface air temperatures. These effects result from enhanced vertical mixing due to turbulence generated by wind turbine rotors. The impacts of wind farms on local weather can be minimized by changing rotor design or by siting wind farms in regions with high natural turbulence. Using a 25-y-long climate dataset, we identified such regions in the world. Many of these regions, such as the Midwest and Great Plains in the United States, are also rich in wind resources, making them ideal candidates for low-impact wind farms.
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Effect of the horns rev 1 offshore wind farm on fish communities: Follow-up seven years after construction[R]. Kopenhagen, Denmark: Institut for |
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Review on wind power development in China: Current situation and improvement strategies to realize future development [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.018 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
As wind power resources are abundant, China’s wind power industry has entered a period of rapid growth since 2005, and constantly facing new challenges at the same time. In this paper, the general situation of China’s wind power resource and wind power industry development are introduced. On this basis, future development potential and target of wind power industry are analyzed combining with the recent introduction of the policy and the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan”. The main obstacles prevailing in the development such as grid integration, price mechanism, industry standard system, and supporting policies are discussed. In addition, strategy advice for promoting the further development of China’s wind power is proposed. In general, the development prospect of China’s wind power industry will be even brighter.
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Testing the rationale behind an assumed linear relationship between evapotranspiration and land surface temperature [J].
Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence indicate a linear relationship between the land surface temperature (Ts) and the corresponding evapotranspiration (ET) rate under spatially constant wind and net energy conditions at a homogeneous vegetated surface. Such a relationship lies at the core of the popular surface energy balance algorithm (SEBAL); the satellite-based energy balance approach for mapping evapotranspiration with internalized calibration (METRIC); and the lesser known calibration-free evapotranspiration mapping (CREMAP) method, just to name a few. The present findings are based on analytical solutions of the coupled turbulent heat and vapor transport equations and further corroborated by monthly reanalysis data ofTs, ET, and sensible heat transfer rates over extensive areas in North America and Europe, where the CREMAP method has previously been applied.
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Northern Hemisphere atmospheric stilling partly attributed to an increase in surface roughness [J].https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo979 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Surface winds have declined in China, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, the United States and Australia over the past few decades(1-4). The precise cause of the stilling is uncertain. Here, we analyse the extent and potential cause of changes in surface wind speeds over the northern mid-latitudes between 1979 and 2008, using data from 822 surface weather stations. We show that surface wind speeds have declined by 5-15 % over almost all continental areas in the northern mid-latitudes, and that strong winds have slowed faster than weak winds. In contrast, upper-air winds calculated from sea-level pressure gradients, and winds from weather reanalyses,exhibited no such trend. Changes in atmospheric circulation that are captured by reanalysis data explain 10-50 % of the surface wind slowdown. In addition, mesoscale model simulations suggest that an increase in surface roughness-the magnitude of which is estimated from increases in biomass and land-use change in Eurasia-could explain between 25 and 60 % of the stilling. Moreover, regions of pronounced stilling generally coincided with regions where bioma
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Regional climate model simulations indicate limited climatic impacts by operational and planned European wind farms [J].https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4196 URL PMID: 24518587 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The rapid of wind energy has raised concerns about environmental impacts. Temperature changes are found in the vicinity of wind farms and previous simulations have suggested that large-scale wind farms could alter regional climate. However, assessments of the effects of realistic wind power scenarios at the scale of a continent are missing. Here we simulate the impacts of current and near-future wind energy production according to European Union energy and climate policies. We use a regional climate model describing the interactions between turbines and the atmosphere, and find limited impacts. A statistically significant signal is only found in winter, with changes within ±0.365°C and within 0-5% for precipitation. It results from the combination of local wind farm effects and changes due to a weak, but robust, anticyclonic-induced over Europe. However, the impacts remain much weaker than the natural climate interannual variability and changes expected from greenhouse gas emissions.
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Potential climatic impacts and reliability of very large-scale wind farms [J].https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-2053-2010 URL 摘要
Meeting future world energy needs while addressing climate change requires large-scale deployment of low or zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emission technologies such as wind energy. The widespread availability of wind power has fueled substantial interest in this renewable energy source as one of the needed technologies. For very large-scale utilization of this resource, there are however potential environmental impacts, and also problems arising from its inherent intermittency, in addition to the present need to lower unit costs. To explore some of these issues, we use a three-dimensional climate model to simulate the potential climate effects associated with installation of wind-powered generators over vast areas of land or coastal ocean. Using wind turbines to meet 10% or more of global energy demand in 2100, could cause surface warming exceeding 1 掳C over land installations. In contrast, surface cooling exceeding 1 掳C is computed over ocean installations, but the validity of simulating the impacts of wind turbines by simply increasing the ocean surface drag needs further study. Significant warming or cooling remote from both the land and ocean installations, and alterations of the global distributions of rainfall and clouds also occur. These results are influenced by the competing effects of increases in roughness and decreases in wind speed on near-surface turbulent heat fluxes, the differing nature of land and ocean surface friction, and the dimensions of the installations parallel and perpendicular to the prevailing winds. These results are also dependent on the accuracy of the model used, and the realism of the methods applied to simulate wind turbines. Additional theory and new field observations will be required for their ultimate validation. Intermittency of wind power on daily, monthly and longer time scales as computed in these simulations and inferred from meteorological observations, poses a demand for one or more options to ensure reliability, including backup generation capacity, very long distance power transmission lines, and onsite energy storage, each with specific economic and/or technological challenges.
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| [66] |
a. Ecological impacts of wind farms on birds: Questions, hypotheses, and research needs [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.031 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
Wind power is increasingly being used worldwide as an important contribution to renewable energy, due to its low greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels. However, it has been suggested that the development of wind power has caused an adverse impacts on birds. We summarise current evidence of bird fatalities resulting from wind power, outline the reasons why and how birds are killed by wind power developments, and identify research needs to better inform researchers, decision makers, developers and other stakeholders, to help mitigate any adverse impacts of wind power developments on birds.
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| [67] |
b. Quantifying impacts of onshore wind farms on ecosystem services at local and global scales [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.019 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Energy technologies have both local and global impacts on ecosystem services, with local impacts occurring where the energy is generated, and global impacts occurring where energy feedstock or raw materials for energy infrastructure are sourced. Assessing these impacts in both local and remote locations is important but challenging. In this paper we present a first attempt to quantify the impacts of onshore wind farms on ecosystem services for the UK at local and global scales, building on approaches used for life cycle analyses of energy technologies, that consider the provenance of materials used for energy infrastructure. We first identify the lifecycle processes of onshore wind farms, and then use a systematic literature review of local impacts of onshore wind farms on ecosystem services and a 鈥楤roadbrush鈥 approach for global impacts. Results show that onshore wind farms tend to have significant positive local impacts on primary production and air quality, and tend to have negative local impacts on soil, water and livestock which are mostly associated with the operational and decommissioning stages of wind turbines in the UK. At global scale, onshore wind farms tend to have negative impacts on a number of ecosystem services, due to the processes associated with the mining of steel and concrete in other parts of the world, but this is common to all energy infrastructures. These should help wind farm developers and researchers identify and avoid adverse impacts of onshore wind farms on ecosystem services.
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| [68] |
Aeroacoustic noise prediction for wind turbines using large eddy simulation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2015.05.011 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Noise disturbance is one of the major factors considered in the development of wind farms near urban areas, and therefore an accurate estimate of the noise levels generated by wind turbines is required before production and installation. Horizontal-axis wind turbines are the most popular type of turbines and the aeroacoustic noise generated by their rotating blades is known to be the most significant noise source. The region of the turbine blade that produces the strongest acoustic sources has been identified in published acoustic camera measurements. In the present work, a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of this region is carried out using an annular computational domain, which leads to a significant reduction of computational expense compared to full blade simulations. The Ffowcs-Williams and Hawkings (FW鈥揌) acoustic analogy is then used to predict the far field sound. Numerical results for a simulation of the CART-2 wind turbine show good agreement with the available experimental data.
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| [69] |
Application of hybrid life cycle approaches to emerging energy technologies-the case of wind power in the UK [J].https://doi.org/10.1021/es2007287 URL PMID: 21649442 摘要
Not Available
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| [70] |
A case study of effects of atmospheric boundary layer turbulence, wind speed, and stability on wind farm induced temperature changes using observations from a field campaign [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-015-2696-9 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recent studies using satellite observations show that operational wind farms in west-central Texas increase local nighttime land surface temperature (LST) by 0.31–0.7002°C, but no noticeable impact is detected during daytime, and that the diurnal and seasonal variations in the magnitude of this warming are likely determined by those in the magnitude of wind speed. This paper further explores these findings by using the data from a year-long field campaign and nearby radiosonde observations to investigate how thermodynamic profiles and surface–atmosphere exchange processes work in tandem with the presence of wind farms to affect the local climate. Combined with satellite data analyses, we find that wind farm impacts on LST are predominantly determined by the relative ratio of turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) induced by the wind turbines compared to the background TKE. This ratio explains not only the day–night contrast of the wind farm impact and the warming magnitude of nighttime LST over the wind farms, but also most of the seasonal variations in the nighttime LST changes. These results indicate that the diurnal and seasonal variations in the turbine-induced turbulence relative to the background TKE play an essential role in determining those in the magnitude of LST changes over the wind farms. In addition, atmospheric stability determines the sign and strength of the net downward heat transport as well as the magnitude of the background TKE. The study highlights the need for better understanding of atmospheric boundary layer and wind farm interactions, and for better parameterizations of sub-grid scale turbulent mixing in numerical weather prediction and climate models.
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| [71] |
Status and prospects of Chinese wind energy [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2009.06.058 URL Magsci [本文引用: 4] 摘要
The Chinese government is paying considerable attention to the utilization of renewable energy, especially wind energy, because of problems such as low per capita energy consumption, heavy environment pollution, low energy efficiency, and small proportion of renewable energy. The utilization of wind energy, whose resources are very abundant in China, is undergoing rapid development; however, there are still a lot of barriers to overcome. Recently, the Chinese government made a series of policies to promote the wind power industry and the construction of wind farms, which accelerated the technology development simultaneously. The study presents a brief introduction to the resource, status and prospect of wind energy in China, which shows that with the support of the government, China will accelerate the cultivation of professionals, increase the investment of scientific research, establish a national public technical service platform to enhance self-innovation capability and to integrate domestic and oversea resources, and finally establish a complete industrial system that involves manufacture, consultation and service.
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| [72] |
Rangeland ecosystem services: Shifting focus from supply to reconciling supply and demand [J].https://doi.org/10.1890/140156 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT
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| [73] |
Characterisation of wind farm infrasound and low-frequency noise [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsv.2016.02.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper seeks to characterise infrasound and low-frequency noise (ILFN) from a wind farm, which contains distinct tonal components with distinguishable blade-pass frequency and higher harmonics. Acoustic measurements were conducted at dwellings in the vicinity of the wind farm and meteorological measurements were taken at the wind farm location and dwellings. Wind farm ILFN was measured frequently under stable and very stable atmospheric conditions and was also found to be dependent on the time of year. For noise character assessment, wind farm ILFN was compared with several hearing thresholds and also with the spectra obtained when the wind farm was not operating. Wind farm ILFN was found to exceed the audibility threshold at distances up to 4聽km from the wind farm and to undergo large variations in magnitude with time.
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| [74] |
Microbial mediation of carbon-cycle feedbacks to climate warming [J]. |
| [75] |
Impacts of wind farms on land surface temperature [J].https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1505 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The wind industry in the United States has experienced a remarkably rapid expansion of capacity in recent years and this fast growth is expected to continue in the future. While converting wind's kinetic energy into electricity, wind turbines modify surface-atmosphere exchanges and the transfer of energy, momentum, mass and moisture within the atmosphere. These changes, if spatially large enough, may have noticeable impacts on local to regional weather and climate. Here we present observational evidence for such impacts based on analyses of satellite data for the period of 2003-2011 over a region in west-central Texas, where four of the world's largest wind farms are located. Our results show a significant warming trend of up to 0.72掳C per decade, particularly at night-time, over wind farms relative to nearby non-wind-farm regions. We attribute this warming primarily to wind farms as its spatial pattern and magnitude couples very well with the geographic distribution of wind turbines.
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