童昕
, 王涛
TONG Xin, WANG Tao
收稿日期: 2017-09-27
修回日期: 2018-03-8
网络出版日期: 2018-07-28
版权声明: 2018 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：童昕(1975-),女,四川成都人,博士,副教授,研究方向为产业地理和产业生态学,E-mail: tongxin@urban.pku.edu.cn。
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摘要
电子废物跨境转移近年来开始引起国际经济地理学者关注,其中折射了全球生产网络中污染控制与市场化再生利用之间的治理矛盾和价值冲突。中国在规范电子废物管理的过程中,采纳了生产者责任延伸制度,逐渐形成生产者缴纳政府基金,基金补贴正规处理厂,正规处理厂再通过市场采购方式从非正式的回收渠道收集电子废物的分工格局。这一格局杂合了巴塞尔公约的属地化管理机制和地区贸易的市场化机制,反映了政府在规制复杂产品环境问题中所面临的两难。本文在多年参与式调查的基础上,根据环保部公布的2014年全国109家正规处理厂实际回收废弃家电产品的数量,采用威尔逊空间相互作用模型,估算了全国非正式回收渠道内的废旧家电产品地区间流动格局,并结合处理厂问卷调查对比了实际流向与理论模型的差异。研究结果显示：由于非正式回收渠道的竞争性所导致的废旧家电跨省流动占到全国正规渠道电子废物回收总量的1/3以上,这与电子废物处理设施省级属地化管理,主要满足本省产生的电子废物处理需求的规划初衷有较大出入。为此本文探讨了这种规划目标与市场流动之间发生错位的内在原因,指出当前电子废物管理重点应该从围绕处理设施的管理控制转向逆向物流系统的优化和商业模式创新。
关键词：
Abstract
Cross-boundary flows of e-waste have been addressed in economic geography literature, reflecting the deep conflicts of values between environmental protection and resources recovery at the global scale. Based on the principle of extended producer responsibility, a division of activity between the informal sector and formal recycling plants has formed in China with the state subsidy to the latter to buy waste products collected by the former. Using the Wilson spatial interaction model, this study depicted the interprovincial flows of e-waste in China in 2014, and compared the estimation with the results from a survey on formal recycling plants. Both results show that around 1/3 of the e-waste flowing to the formal recycling plants came from interprovincial transportation, despite the government intention to plan a regional self-sufficient system for e-waste recycling at the provincial level. We discussed the reasons for the mismatch between the planned and the real spatial patterns of e-waste flows. In conclusion, we identified several implications from the experience of China for the global e-waste management.
Keywords：
废物跨境转移及循环利用近年来在经济地理学领域引起一些学者的关注(Herod et al, 2014)。废物问题作为全球生产网络的延伸反映出商品消费并非价值链的终结,消费后的废物处置和再生利用活动是整个价值链中不可或缺的环节。经济地理学者在考察全球废物贸易的过程中,将商品、劳动和价值流转中单向的物质流动扩展到从废物到资源的全生命周期物质循环与迁移(Gregson et al, 2015)。而这一过程深刻折射出当今消费主义导向的全球生产体系所带来的不断加剧的环境和健康风险,以及其地理分配上的高度不均衡(Crang et al, 2013)。相关研究包括船舶、汽车、纺织服装、塑料等不同产品,其中关于电子废物的流动尤为引人关注。一方面,电子产品更新换代频繁,是技术推动产品加速废弃的典型;另一方面,作为一种复杂产品,电子废物兼具环境污染问题和资源利用价值,在发达国家与发展中国家的管理实践中形成巨大的价值冲突,并深刻地影响到全球治理框架的演变(Lepawsky, 2015)。
在全球尺度,针对电子废物处理过程中的环境污染问题,形成2种不同的治理思路。首先是基于《控制危险废料越境转移及其处置巴塞尔公约》(Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal,简称《巴塞尔公约》)的属地化管理思路,主要针对电子废物中包含的重金属和持久有机污染物,以及处理过程的环境污染风险,将电子废物归入危险废物的范畴,主张限制电子废物从发达国家向发展中国家转移,要求在发达国家内部完成电子废物的安全处置。然而,这一思路忽视了发展中国家自身发展带来的电子废物增长也需要建立相应的管理能力(Widmer et al, 2005; Yu et al, 2010)。其次,电子废物再生利用有一定的经济价值——废旧产品修复后再利用兼具经济效益和环境效益;而不可修复的电子废物中提炼稀贵金属是末端处置阶段经济价值最高的环节,但也是环境风险最大的环节。电子废物的循环利用受市场利益的驱动,在发展中国家拥有自发的市场需求,而在发达国家则由于严格的环境管制导致再生利用成本高昂。因此,也有学者提出建立区域性的电子废物循环利用网络,利用市场机制寻求电子废物再生利用和环保处置的跨国协作机制,提高电子废物循环利用的经济效益,帮助发展中国家在资金不足的条件下逐步建立起有效的电子废物回收管理机制(Manhart, 2011; Wang et al, 2012)。然而从全球来看,《巴塞尔公约》的属地化管理机制并没能有效阻止电子废物从发达国家流向发展中国家(Breivik et al, 2014)。基于市场化的跨国贸易机制也面临操作中的重重困境(Kirby et al, 2015)。到底应该在全球尺度还是区域尺度建立电子废物管理体系成为电子废物跨国治理机制中的一个难题(Li et al, 2013)。
电子废物的再生利用与跨境流动体现了环境管制中政府干预与市场机制之间的深刻矛盾。中国是目前世界最大的电子产品生产国和消费国,根据联合国大学《全球电子废物报告2014》,2014年全球产生的电子废物为4180万t,其中亚洲1600万t。中国已经成为亚洲最大的电子废物产生国,达到600万t(Balde et al, 2015)。中国电子废物的再生利用自20世纪90年代初就在沿海一些相对偏远的地区开始形成集聚,规模较大的包括天津子牙、浙江台州、广东贵屿、南海和清远等地。处理的电子废物主要来自进口,处置方式以元器件和材料循环利用为主,沿海地区的工业发展对工业原料的需求增长成为进口电子废物活动最主要的集聚动因(Tong et al, 2004)。然而,非正式的回收业者在对电子废物进行初步的手工拆解以后,往往通过焚烧和简单的酸洗工艺提取线路板中的稀贵金属。由于缺少有效的污染控制,这类活动给电子废物处理集聚地区造成严重的环境污染和健康影响(Bridgen et al, 2005; Yu et al, 2006; Zhang et al, 2009)。按照《巴塞尔公约》亚太区域中心的估计,2004年有3300万t非法的电子废物流入亚洲国家,其中大部分都进入中国(BCRC, 2005)。2005年流入中国的电子废物占到OECD国家流入非OECD国家电子废物总量的10%左右(Breivik et al, 2014)。巴塞尔行动组织公布的中国贵屿进口电子废物处理的实地调查更是激起了公众的广泛关注(Puckett et al, 2002),并引发了中国政府对电子废物管理的高度重视和积极干预。
经过近10年的试点、立法和实施推进,中国于2011年开始实施《废弃电器电子产品回收处理管理条例》(以下简称“条例”),首批强制回收处理的产品包括电视机、冰箱、空调、洗衣机和个人电脑。财政部为此牵头成立“废弃电器电子产品处理基金”(以下简称“处理基金”),由生产者按实际产量缴纳电子废物处理费,用于补贴有资质的处理厂当年回收处理的废家电产品。环保部则牵头指导各省规划建设规范的电子废物处理工厂,并对其运营全过程开展严格的监督和审查(Tong et al, 2015)。到2015年,全国共计有109家处理厂获得处理资质,拆解处理能力超过1亿台/年。中国用了10年左右的时间,建立起全世界最大规模的电子废物规范化处理能力,并且覆盖大陆所有省区,体现了政府规划管控的有效性。但另一方面,在多年的示范摸索和正式运行中,有资质的正规处理厂普遍未能建立起直接从消费者手中回收废旧家电的渠道,而是依靠多层级的非正式回收渠道收购废家电产品(Chi et al, 2011)。
非正式回收部门的存在是发展中国家电子废物管理中的普遍现象。由于缺乏有效的环境污染控制,非正式回收部门存在较高的环境污染和劳动者健康风险(Bridgen et al, 2005)。但另一方面,非正式回收业者普遍规模小,对回收产品的处理机制比较灵活,会根据每一台产品的状态采取回收利益最大的处理方式,包括维修再利用,元器件再利用,材料循环等,客观上有助于提高废弃产品的再利用价值(Chi et al, 2011)。而发达国家正规化的电子废物管理往往走向一刀切的拆解粉碎和材料回收工艺。从产品全生命周期的角度来看,非正式回收部门的处理方式环境影响反而可能较低。此外,由于非正规回收部门在发展中国家和地区提供了大量底层劳动就业岗位,因此难以简单地以环保之名加以取缔。发达国家与发展中国家在电子废物管理制度中的差异,集中体现在正式部门与非正式部门的关系上(Kojima et al, 2009)。目前主流观点认可将非正式回收部门纳入正规化的处理体系,在提高环境保护标准的同时,维持较高的废物再生利用水平,并改善劳动者的工作条件(Widmer et al, 2005)。在非正式回收体系实际上主导电子废物流动的前提下,对其中电子废物的流动状态进行相对精确的估算,对于优化设施布局和改进逆向物流系统都有重要的意义。
本文研究基于中国2014年有资质的电子废物处理企业回收量数据,采用空间相互作用模型,估算中国列入强制回收名录的5种废弃电子产品(冰箱、洗衣机、空调、电脑和电视机)的省际流动空间格局,作为估算相关物流成本的基础。并通过问卷调查和企业实地调研对结果进行验证。
空间相互作用模型是经济地理学用于对决策过程中的人、物或信息的空间流动开展定量描述的常用工具(Fotheringham, 2001)。该模型通过起点和终点的特性以及距离来预测一组区域单元之间的网络化流动状态。Bröcker(1989)证明采用了空间交互模型的区域间贸易流模型可有效地解释实际的流动,并与经典的空间均衡模型相一致,因而被广泛用于区域间商品流动的预测,主要包括建立在熵最大化概念上的概率模型(Wilson, 1970; Rietveld et al, 2003)、神经网络模型(Nijkamp et al, 2004)以及基于行为的模型(Cesario et al, 1975)。其中,基于熵最大化过程的空间相互模型可以表征空间流动的最大可能状态,其方法是在3个条件(观察到的起点的流出量之和,终点接收到的流入量之和,以及所有点流入和流出总量或总和之间的平衡)的约束下定义空间流的微观状态熵函数,进而利用Lagarange算子,借助条件极值法,求出状态熵最大化方程的泛函解(Wilson, 2010)。这个解可以给出空间流与距离或者运输成本之间的关系。可以证明,最大熵可导致一定条件下的优化分布,实现局部公平(如各个通路的有效使用)与整体效率(如区域运输成本最低)的合理关系(陈彦光,2009; Chen, 2012, 2015)。
针对省级电子废物流向的空间交互模型形式为：
式中：Tij代表是从起点省i流向终点省j的电子废物的量;Xi表示的是各省电子废物的产生量;Yj表示流入j省正式处理厂的电子废物量;
Tij是从i省到j省的流,可表示矩阵形式T。所有流向各省的电子废物量的方式中,总计的可能组合的微观状态数W为：
与特定矩阵T相关的空间组合值可被转化成给定模式发生的二维概率分布。Boltzmann的微观状态熵原理表明：满足给定约束条件下,流分布的多种状态中存在一个压倒性的最大可能状态。在本模型中,反映流入和流出特征的约束条件包括：
式中：Xi为区域i的流出总量;Yj为区域j的流入总量。反映运输成本的约束条件为：
式中：cij表示从i到j运输货物的费用;而C表示整个区域的总费用。
在满足等式(5)-(7)的守恒条件下,基于式(4)表示的空间状态熵lnW最大化,可以获得最可几状态。根据微积分的条件极值原理,求导数可得熵最大化的先决条件表达式：
其中：xi、yj和β是Lagrange乘数。考虑到条件极值,通过等式(8),可以导出式(1)及其参数表达式(2)和(3)。利用式(1)-(3),可以估算中国跨省的电子废物流动状态。空间相互作用模型分为总量约束模型、产生约束模型、吸引约束模型和产生—吸引约束模型4类。由于可得的最可靠的数据是政府发布的各省规范处理厂实际收到的电子废物量,我们采用吸引约束关系,即用等式(6)作为流入地约束条件进行估算。模型中距离衰减的系数β反映了区域间互动的强度受距离的影响。因为使用过的产品价值要远低于新产品,电子废物流动对运输距离更敏感,根据实地观察经验,本模型中β取值为7。
根据空间相互作用模型,主要数据包括：①各省区电子废物的产生量。采用刘志峰等(2016)的方法计算2014年各省(市、自治区)5种强制回收的废弃电器电子产品的产生量,也就是模型中的Xi。②各省(市、自治区)电子废物回收数量。来自中国环境保护部(MEPC)网站,各省正规处理厂上报回收量作为流入量,也就是模型中的Yj。原始数据中产生量和回收量均以台为单位。由于模型中的运输成本按重量计算,因此参考Song等(2013)发表的回收厂调查数据将台数换算成重量。③运输成本矩阵。基于国内一家主要的门到门物流公司的公路货运价格表。门到门物流在过去10年中随电子商务发展迅速成长。其价格不仅反映绝对距离,也能反映因区域间双向运输量不对等和运输可得性造成的价格差异。且末端1公里的成本和不确定性在电子商务门到门运输与电子废物回收网络中具有相通性,两者在最后1公里物流人员的劳动力供给上也存在直接竞争,因而两者价格的空间结构特点具有可比性。此外,从发达国家电子废物回收体系的演化来看,最终回收渠道将以正规的第三方物流企业为主导,因此采用门到门物流公司的货运价格估算可作为系统优化的物流成本参照。
为了比较电子废物的实际流动与估算模型之间的差别,我们在2017年7月通过电子邮件对109家正规处理厂发放问卷,调查企业2014年回收产品的实际货源地分布。共收到有效企业问卷72份,覆盖大陆地区26个省级行政单位(缺少宁夏、西藏、云南和重庆的处理厂反馈,按照2014年公布的实际处理量数据,西藏和云南还没有实际运行的正规处理厂,宁夏和重庆实际处理量分别为84万台和29万台,合计仅占总处理量的约1.5%),有效问卷的企业处理量合计占当年全部处理量70%。按照有效问卷企业回收量占所在省(市、自治区)的回收量的比重加权,获得实地调查的各省(市、自治区)之间的流量数据。
电子废物的产生量与人口密度和经济发展水平密切相关。中国家用电器研究院按物质流模型估算“条例”所规定的五种强制回收的废弃电器电子产品2014年全国总的废弃量达到1.14亿台。刘志峰等(2016)采用人口与GDP拟合市场渗透率,估算2014年废弃量达1.41亿台。由于刘志峰等(2016)的计算方法可以推广到分省市自治区产生量的估算,因此我们采用这一计算方法获得全国省级单元的废弃量空间分布(图1)。
图1 2014年中国强制回收的五种废弃电器电子产品产生量的空间分布
Fig.1 Spatial pattern of e-waste generation in China, 2014
正规的电子废物处理设施是各省根据自身电子废物产生量预测规划建设的。自基金制度建立以来,环保部会对有资质的处理企业采取严格的在线监测和现场核查,因此资质企业每年会发生一些变化,一些企业被淘汰,另外有新的企业进入。图2为2014年正规处理企业处理能力的空间分布。
2014年中国正规废弃电器电子产品处理能力空间分布
Fig.2 Spatial distribution of formal e-waste recycling capacity in China, 2014
3.2.1 模型估算结果
根据熵最大化的空间相互作用模型,以各省(市、自治区)正规处理厂实际回收量为流入地约束条件,估算2014年电子废物的跨省流动状态(图3)。结果显示：总流量中大约1/3为跨省流动,按照正向物流的价格估算回收物流总成本大约为6亿元人民币,约为当年实际发放基金补贴总额的15%。
图3 根据空间相互作用模型估算的中国2014年电子废物的省际流动状态
注：图中外面3个环为各省市自治区流量构成,最外环为流入流出总量(颜色为流出省区),次外环为流入量(颜色为流入省区),第三环为流出量(颜色为流出省区);内侧则为流向网络示意图,弧刻度为各省、市、自治区流入流出总量占全国流量的比重,连线色彩表示流出省区,线宽示意流量规模。
Fig. 3 Interprovincial flows of e-waste in China in 2014 estimated with the spatial interaction model
中国电子废物省际流动网络呈现明显的区域化特征,并形成2个紧密联系的区域集团：一是北方集团,包括北京、天津、河北、山西、山东;二是东部集团,包括上海、江苏、浙江、安徽。中部省份(河南、湖北、湖南、江西)与北方和南方省份都有一定的相互流动。南方省区(福建、海南、广东、广西)跨境流动的比例略低一些,但与东部和中部各省之间也存在相互交织的跨省流动。边远地区形成3个规模较小的区域集团,即西南集团,包括四川和重庆;东北集团,包括辽宁、吉林和黑龙江;西北集团,包括陕西、甘肃、青海和宁夏。还有一些偏远省区,如西南边陲的贵州和云南,西北的新疆,北方的内蒙古等,与其他省(市、自治区)之间基本没有相互流动。在此模型中,交通成本是影响跨省流动的主要因素。模型估算的结果反映了市场化回收机制下,如果重点考虑物流成本,区域性的解决方案可能比在省级层面的规划更合理。网络中一些省(市、自治区)在流入量上有明显的集中优势,比如天津、湖北、湖南、江苏,反映出这些省区的处理厂可服务于更大的空间范围。
3.2.2 实际调查结果
图4显示了根据企业问卷调查结果推算的2014年电子废物省级流动的实际状况。从中可以看出,实际流动的空间格局与模型预测比较相似,特别是跨省流动占总流量比重为30%,与模型预测接近。流动联系紧密的总体区域格局高度相似。具体省份之间的流动有一定出入。一方面,空间相互作用模型预测的是最大可能的结果,真实结果肯定存在一定的变差范围;另一方面,使用的空间相互作用模型里面只考虑了交通成本因素,没有将不同地区处理设施运行的成本差异、企业竞争策略、当地原材料市场的需求因素等其他影响因素考虑在内。但模型与实地调查结果在总体空间格局上的相似性说明,交通成本因素对中国正式处理体系下的电子废物流动空间格局具有决定性的影响。
图4 根据问卷调查结果推算的中国2014年电子废物的省际流动状态
Fig.4 Interprovincial flows of e-waste in China in 2014 estimated by survey
对比模型估算和问卷调查反映的实际状态,我们认为,中国电子废物地区间流动的基本格局符合负指数衰减的空间相互作用规律。这意味着,中国正规处理厂体系下的电子废物输送以就近处理的局域效应为主导,而不是以远距离输送的长程效应为基本特征。对比已有电子废物跨国流动的研究(Breivik et al, 2014),在缺少强有力的环境管制的情况下,跨洲际的长距离流动反而是发展中地区形成高度集聚的电子废物处理中心的重要地理特征,这其实反映了市场经济条件下,产业链中从废物到原料的内在联系机制对废物流动空间格局的关键性影响。这一现象体现了市场机制与规划干预的内在冲突。
模型所识别出的电子废物流动的区域化格局也与实际调查结果有较高的相似度,特别是华北(北京、天津、河北、山西和山东)区,无论模型预测还是实地调查结果都存在较紧密的内部相互流动,反映了区域一体化的解决方案可能比目前分省区处理的现状更为合理。
模型与实地调查出现的显著差别也揭示出交通成本以外的其他因素在产业区位变动中可能发挥的作用。比如华东(浙江、江苏、上海和安徽)区按照模型预测应该像华北区一样以内部相互流动为主要特征,但实地调查的情况是华东各省市之间的流动反而没有华东向内陆河南、湖北、江西等地的流动强。考虑到中国沿海曾经依靠进口废料发展起多个电子废物集聚区,而在产业转移的大背景下,市场化的机制实际上在影响着新管制机制下的电子废物流动空间格局的变迁。
在众多省区中,河南是一个比较独特的地区,根据模型预测,按照河南的人口和GDP发展水平,2014年规范处理厂的实际处理量尚不足以处理其自身的电子废物产生量,有超过10%的电子废物会流向周边省份,但根据处理厂实地调查的结果,反而是大量电子废物从河北、山西、山东、陕西、安徽等地流向河南,占当地实际处理量近40%。究其原因,首先是河南在全国有广泛的回收网络,正规体系以外的再生资源市场活跃;其次近期产业转移使得河南对再生资源供给需求较大,也吸引了正规处理企业积极布局,由于与本地的再生资源市场存在一定的竞争,正规处理企业只好积极向省外扩展货源供应。考虑到河南在当前产业转移中所处的独特地位,正规处理体系的发展不能不考虑与非正式回收系统的联系和互动。
模型估算结果和调查中揭示的电子废物实际流动状态说明,以省(市、自治区)为单元规划处理设施,满足其电子废物的回收处理需求,并不是一个合理的规划目标。通过模型识别出中国电子废物流动存在明显的省际区域化空间格局。这给处理设施的空间布局优化提供了参考：在存在较为紧密的跨省流动联系的省区之间,可以考虑根据废物实际流动的空间联系优化处理设施的空间布局。近2年,中国109家电子废物处理厂在市场竞争中经过兼并重组,逐渐形成3家规模较大的集团——格林美、桑德和中再生,其电子废物的回收处理量已经占到全国总回收处理量的1/3以上。这3家集团均在多省布局了电子废物处理企业,具有根据市场进行空间调整的能力。因此,完善基金补贴制度促进企业优化处理设施空间布局,可以有效降低处理成本,提高设施利用效率。
空间相互作用模型反映的是给定市场特征条件下的最大可能结果,市场机制的改变有可能改变空间相互作用的机制,其中基金补贴的额度就有可能改变电子废物流动对运输成本的敏感性。如果基金补贴仅关注正规处理厂的回收量,而不考虑处理厂与非正式回收体系之间的互动机制,为提高正规处理厂的回收量而增加补贴资金,则只会人为地抬高市场上的电子废物价格,激发各地非正式回收业者相互竞价,不惜增加运输距离。另一方面,从环境保护的效果看,电子废物实际上还有很大一部分流向非正式的处理渠道,如果补贴过低,正规处理厂则有可能收不到电子废物,使得环境污染控制的目标无法实现。平衡环境污染控制目标与市场经济效率的关键在于：从以处理设施为中心的规划思路转向以逆向物流供应链建设为中心的系统转型思路。从长远来看,鼓励正规处理企业与非正式回收网络合作,共同提高逆向物流体系的透明度,并引导非正式回收网络向专业化的第三方逆向物流企业转变,才是提高回收系统效率的根本。
中国是全世界唯一一个建起覆盖全国的正规化电子废物处理体系的发展中国家。作为《巴塞尔公约》缔约国,中国履行了自己对危险废物跨境流动积极管控的承诺。但是电子废物在全球尺度所面临的两难处境——平衡污染防控与再生利用市场价值——在中国国内的电子废物管理制度建设中也同样突出。中国在电子废物管理中的经验对全球电子废物治理机制建设具有重要的借鉴意义。
首先,在政府主导下,按照属地化原则规划处理设施,可以快速建立起符合环保要求的正规电子废物处理能力。这对于电子产品消费快速增长,但缺乏本地电子废物处理能力的发展中地区很重要。但按照何种地理空间单元规划正规处理能力,不仅需要考虑平衡污染控制的管理成本和处理设施的规模经济,还需要兼顾市场化回收机制下的废物实际流动趋势。空间相互作用模型的预测结果为现有管制格局下合理划分回收市场的空间单元提供了参考。
其次,政府干预会对市场化的非正式回收体系带来巨大的冲击。中国禁止电子废物进口,同时大力推进正规化电子废物处理体系的建设,彻底改变了电子废物循环产业链的空间布局。以广东贵屿为代表的传统沿海电子废物处理集聚区的处理量已经大幅下降。电子废物的实际流向出现明显的向中部内陆省区转移的特点。这其中既有政府干预的驱动,也有产业转移大背景的影响。如果没有有效的政府干预,这种转移很可能伴随出现环境污染的逐底竞争。而有效的政府干预有可能实现转移中的技术升级。
第三,规划干预的重点应该从以处理设施建设管理为中心转向以逆向物流系统建设为重点。从废物到资源的循环经济产业链是与正向生产系统一样复杂、分工细密的网络。正规处理厂只是这个系统中的一个局部环节。在有效控制环境污染的前提下,需要充分利用市场机制,以正规处理厂为支点,将非正式回收体系逐步纳入正规化的逆向物流系统,提高物流系统的透明度和运行效率。空间相互作用模型揭示的是现有市场结构下的可能状况,进一步优化需要在废物管理的机制设计中寻找系统化解决方案。其中,生产者责任延伸制度正被越来越多的国家采纳为废物管理新机制。这一机制设计的初衷并不仅仅是为资源回收和再生利用行业寻找资金补助,而更强调通过废物管理影响前端的产品设计和商业模式创新,从而真正将废物管理纳入生产网络的整体系统之中。这一转型过程有可能改变空间相互作用的微观机制,从而在宏观尺度带来电子废物流向格局的变化,因此有必要在更长的时段中观察电子废物管制模式变化对电子废物空间流动格局变迁的实际影响。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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If we consider Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) management, we can see the development of different positions in developed and developing countries. This development started with the movement of WEEE from developed countries to the developing countries. However, when the consequences for health and the environment were observed, some developing countries introduced a ban on the import of this kind of waste under the umbrella of the Basel Convention, while some developed countries have been considering a regional or global WEEE recycling approach. This paper explores the current movements between Source and Destination countries, or the importers and exporters, and examines whether it is legal and why illegal traffic is still rife; how global initiatives could support a global WEEE management scheme; the recycling characteristics of the source an destination countries and also to ascertain whether the principle of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) has been established between the different stakeholders involved in WEEE management. Ultimately, the Full Extended Producer Responsibility is presented as a possible solution because the compensation of the environmental capacity for WEEE recycling or treatment could be made by the contribution of extra responsibility; and also generating an uniform standard for processing WEEE in an environmentally sound manner could support the regional or international solution of WEEE and also improve the performance of the informal sector.
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| [20] |
International cooperation for metal recycling from waste electrical and electronic equipment [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00307.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Summary This article addresses a market-based management concept for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) known as the est-of-two-worlds approach. The concept is based on the idea that recyclers in developing countries and emerging economies can cooperate with technologically advanced refineries in industrialized countries to facilitate efficient recovery of valuable metals, such as gold and palladium, from e-waste. The article provides an overview of technical and environmental concerns underlying the concept and sheds light on the political framework, the waste-related trade issues, and the resource economics that need to be considered for further decision making. Building on this synthesis, I conduct a qualitative assessment of sustainability impacts of the proposed concept by analyzing two scenarios and their associated risks. The analysis suggests that, under certain preconditions, the best-of-two-worlds concept could yield significant improvements in terms of management of hazardous substances, resource efficiency, greenhouse gas emissions, income generation, and investments into social and environmental standards. Generally, two potential implementation scenarios were identified: Whereas under Scenario 1 only WEEE generated within developing countries and emerging economies is managed through the best-of-two-worlds approach, Scenario 2 additionally incorporates WEEE imported from industrialized countries. Although both scenarios can yield a variety of benefits, Scenario 2 might cause a net flow of hazardous substances from industrialized countries into developing countries and emerging economies, thus leading to less beneficial sustainability impacts.
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Comparative modelling of interregional transport flows: Applications to multimodal European freight transport [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2003.08.007 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Exporting harm: The high-tech trashing of Asia [EB/OL]. BAN Website, |
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Spatial interaction modeling [C]//Hall R W. |
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The life cycle assessment of an e-waste treatment enterprise in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-013-0152-7 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) has become one of the fastest growing waste streams in the world, and many countries have established e-waste treatment enterprises to solve their e-waste problems. In this study, a life cycle assessment (LCA) was undertaken to quantitatively investigate the environmental impacts of an e-waste treatment enterprise in China. The LCA is constructed by SimaPro software version 7.2 and expressed with the Eco-indicator 99 life cycle impact assessment method. For a sensitivity analysis of the overall LCA results, the so-called CML method is used in order to estimate the influence of the choice of the assessment method on the result. According to the survey data, discarded TV sets accounted for the highest proportion of e-waste treated in the enterprise in 2010. The e-waste treatment had little environmental impact, and at the same time large environmental benefits can be achieved mainly due to the recycled resources and reuse of some components. Based on the research results, it can be seen that recycled metal, especially copper, would be of more importance for environmental benefits. Relevant results and data from this study could provide decision support to enterprise managers and government sectors.
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| [25] |
Re-making spaces of conversion: Deconstructing discourses of e-waste recycling in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/area.12140 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
China implemented its e‐waste policy in 2012, declaring adherence to the principle of Extended Producer Responsibility. Public planning, policies and demonstration projects for recycling facilities have been promoted widely at city and provincial levels to rebuild the image of e‐waste management in China. This article traces the evolution of e‐waste recycling practices in China, from imported e‐waste recycling clusters in coastal rural areas and e‐waste disassembly and trading bazaars in suburban areas of big cities to certified e‐waste recyclers subsidised by the government, as well as the waste reduction and recycling efforts of electronics producers. We draw out the logic underpinning the planning of large‐scale collection and sorting centres – armed with automated equipment – to replace the labour‐intensive sorting activities prevalent in the waste villages. By deconstructing and analysing the discourses of e‐waste recycling, which discriminate recycling practices into formal and informal categories, we point out the limits of formalisation, which favours short and standard shredding for material recovery instead of reuse.
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| [26] |
Transnational flows of e-waste and spatial patterns of recycling in China [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.45.8.608 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Two geographers residing in Beijing discuss the inflows, processing, and consumption of electronic waste topic largely neglected in the current literature on globalization. Based on extensive interviews with electronics producers and recyclers in China, the paper explores the global flows of e-waste and concentration of related recycling in coastal China. The authors suggest that recycling activities (authorized as well as illegal) grew in tandem with the dramatic increase in electronics production during the last decade. They note that the country's recycling sector has played a significant role in rural industrialization and local economic development, albeit in conflict with the objectives of environmental protection. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: F20, L63, O17, O19. 6 figures, 23 references.
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The Best-of-2-Worlds philosophy: Developing local dismantling and global infrastructure network for sustainable e-waste treatment in emerging economies [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.03.029 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Global perspectives on e-waste [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2005.04.001 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Electronic waste, or e-waste, is an emerging problem as well as a business opportunity of increasing significance, given the volumes of e-waste being generated and the content of both toxic and valuable materials in them. The fraction including iron, copper, aluminium, gold and other metals in e-waste is over 60%, while pollutants comprise 2.70%. Given the high toxicity of these pollutants especially when burned or recycled in uncontrolled environments, the Basel Convention has identified e-waste as hazardous, and developed a framework for controls on transboundary movement of such waste. The Basel Ban, an amendment to the Basel Convention that has not yet come into force, would go one step further by prohibiting the export of e-waste from developed to industrializing countries. Section 1 of this paper gives readers an overview on the e-waste topic ow e-waste is defined, what it is composed of and which methods can be applied to estimate the quantity of e-waste generated. Considering only PCs in use, by one estimate, at least 100 million PCs became obsolete in 2004. Not surprisingly, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) today already constitutes 8% of municipal waste and is one of the fastest growing waste fractions. Section 2 provides insight into the legislation and initiatives intended to help manage these growing quantities of e-waste. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is being propagated as a new paradigm in waste management. The European Union's WEEE Directive, which came into force in August of 2004, makes it incumbent on manufacturers and importers in EU states to take back their products from consumers and ensure environmentally sound disposal. WEEE management in industrializing countries has its own characteristics and problems, and therefore this paper identifies some problems specific to such countries. The risky process of extracting copper from printed wiring boards is discussed as an example to illustrate the hazards of the e-waste recycling industry in India. The WEEE Knowledge Partnership programme funded by seco (Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs) and implemented by Empa has developed a methodology to assess the prevailing situation, in order to better understand the opportunities and risks in pilot urban areas of three countries eijing-China, Delhi-India and Johannesburg-South Africa. The three countries are compared using an assessment indicator system which takes into account the structural framework, the recycling system and its various impacts. Three key points have emerged from the assessments so far: a) e-waste recycling has developed in all countries as a market based activity, b) in China and India it is based on small to medium-sized enterprises (SME) in the informal sector, whereas in South Africa it is in the formal sector, and c) each country is trying to overcome shortcomings in the current system by developing strategies for improvement.
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| [29] |
Inter-regional commodity flows: Entropy maximizing approaches [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1970.tb00859.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
First page of article
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Entropy in urban and regional modelling: Retrospect and prospect [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.2010.00799.x URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Forecasting global generation of obsolete personal computers [J].https://doi.org/10.1021/es903350q URL PMID: 20302363 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract Electronic waste (e-waste) has emerged as a new policy priority around the world. Motivations to address e-waste include rapidly growing waste streams, concern over the environmental fate of heavy metals and other substances in e-waste, and impacts of informal recycling in developing countries. Policy responses to global e-waste focus on banning international trade in end-of-life electronics, the premise being that e-waste is mainly generated in the developed world and then exported to the developing world. Sales of electronics have, however, been growing rapidly in developing nations, raising the question of whether informal recycling in developing countries driven by international trade or domestic generation. This paper addresses this question by forecasting the global generation of obsolete personal computers (PCs) using the logistic model and material flow analysis. Results show that the volume of obsolete PCs generated in developing regions will exceed that of developed regions by 2016-2018. By 2030, the obsolete PCs from developing regions will reach 400-700 million units, far more than from developed regions at 200-300 million units. Future policies to mitigate the impacts of informal recycling should address the domestic situation in developing countries.
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| [32] |
Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils at Guiyu area of China, affected by recycling of electronic waste using primitive technologies [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.04.006 URL [本文引用: 1] |
| [33] |
Eco-toxicity and metal contamination of paddy soil in an e-waste recycling area [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.056 URL PMID: 19042085 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Paddy soil samples taken from different sites in an old primitive electronic-waste (e-waste) processing region were examined for eco-toxicity and metal contamination. Using the environmental quality standard for soils (China, Grade II) as reference, soil samples of two sites were weakly contaminated with trace metal, but site G was heavily contaminated with Cd (6.3702mg02kg 611 ), and weakly contaminated with Cu (256.3602mg02kg 611 ) and Zn (209.8502mg02kg 611 ). Zn appeared to be strongly bound in the residual fraction (72.24–77.86%), no matter the soil was metal contaminated or not. However, more than 9% Cd and 16% Cu was present in the non-residual fraction in the metal contaminated soils than in the uncontaminated soil, especially for site G and site F. Compared with that of the control soil, the micronucleus rates of site G and site F soil treatments increased by 2.7-fold and 1.7-fold, respectively. Low germination rates were observed in site C (50%) and site G (50%) soil extraction treated rice seeds. The shortest root length (0.237702cm) was observed in site G soil treated groups, which is only 37.57% of that of the control soil treated groups. All of the micronucleus ratio of Vicia faba root cells, rice germination rate and root length after treatment of soil extraction indicate the eco-toxicity in site F and G soils although the three indexes are different in sensitivity to soil metal contamination.
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| [2] |
我国大陆地区电器电子产品报废量预测研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.13671/j.hjkxxb.2015.0083 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
随着我国电器电子产品的报废量不断增长,准确预测报废量及其分布对回收网络体系规划研究十分关键.本文利用Gompertz模型及保有量系数法对我国电器电子产品报废量进行建模,在验证预测模型及结果准确性的前提下,对全国31个省2003—2020年电视机、电冰箱、洗衣机、空调及电脑的报废量进行预测,并对5种家用电器报废总量构成、时间序列及空间分布进行分析.结果表明,到2020年,我国5种家用电器报废量将达到20.3亿台,广东省以1794万台报废量列居全国首位,上海市以1083台·km~(-2)的报废密度列居首位;按现有回收处理规模,2014年全国仍存在103万t待处理缺口.最后对废旧电器电子产品拆解处理产能布局提出了合理化建议,为我国的家用电器回收网络规划提供参考.
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