杨帆
中山大学地理科学与规划学院,广州 510275
YANG Fan
收稿日期: 2018-03-12
修回日期: 2018-05-30
网络出版日期: 2018-06-28
版权声明: 2018 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：杨帆(1977-),女,广东惠来人,博士,副教授,主要从事服务业地理学研究,E-mail: yangfan25@mail.sysu.edu.cn。
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摘要
伴随着全球生产方式从“福特制”向“后福特制”的转变,生产性服务业逐渐取代制造业成为“后工业社会”区域经济增长和城市体系重构的主导产业。本文梳理了国内外相关文献,并结合国家自然科学基金青年项目“政治经济学视角下中国生产性服务业发展的多层级动力机制及其区域城市化效应”的研究成果,对已有理论及其在中国的适应性进行讨论。结论为：①中国生产性服务业在时空演变态势上既呈现出与西方发达国家同期发展阶段趋同的特征,也具有自身独特的发展路径;②转型期政府—市场、政府—企业、中央—地方等关系,决定了政府对经济的调控程度以及资金、土地和劳动力等要素市场的发育程度,形成了中国生产性服务业发展与西方国家不同的动力机制。③中国生产性服务业的增长和集聚促进了巨型城市区域的发展,改变了城市体系的组织模式,但有别于西方的是,中国生产性服务业的空间效应需考虑生产性服务业与制造业联系的影响。
关键词：
Abstract
With the shift from Fordist to post-Fordist production, producer services have replaced manufacturing as the central activities in shaping regional economies and reorganizing the city systems of the "post-industrial" societies. Based on a critical evaluation of the existing literature, and an elaboration of the deliveries of the project" A study of the multi-scalar growth dynamics of producer services and its urbanization effects: from the political economy perspective" supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, this article discusses the applicability of the existing theories when they are used to understand the growth dynamics of producer services and its spatial effects in China. The main findings include: (1) producer services development shows similar pattern to that in the West, but exhibits its unique characteristics as well; (2) due to the distinctive relationships between the state and the market, the state and enterprises, and the central and local governments in China, existing theories and explanations, developed on the basis of the Western experiences, have yielded important insights but at the same time show limitations to account for the uneven growth of producer services in China; and (3) the dramatic expansion of producer services has led to the rapid growth of large cities and the emergence of mega-city regions, which have reshaped the economic space and reorganized the urban system in China. However, different from its Western counterparts, the spatial effects in China need to consider the impacts from the manufacturing industry.
Keywords：
20世纪70年代以来,伴随着全球生产方式的转变和新国际劳动分工的深化,西方发达国家的经济结构由制造业向服务业转型(Bell, 1973)。经济服务化带来了服务业,特别是生产性服务业(producer services,部分学者译为生产者服务业)的快速扩张,使其成为创造产值和吸纳就业的重要产业部门(Riddle, 1986; Daniels, 1995; Coffey, 2000; Bryson et al, 2004)。生产性服务业是为商品或服务生产提供中间服务投入的产业,具有专业化程度高、知识密集的特点。虽然对生产性服务业的定义比较明确,但是,其所涵盖的具体产业部门,在实证研究中存在外延上的区别。一些学者将生产性服务业等同于广告、法律、会计、计算机服务业、管理咨询等商务服务业(Hansen, 1990; Coffey et al, 1996; Airoldi et al, 1997);一些学者认为生产性服务业包括金融、保险及商务服务业(Gillespie et al, 1987; Hutton et al, 1987; Beyers, 1991);而Sassen(2001)等则将交通、仓储、通讯等产业部门也纳入生产性服务业。此外,“高级生产性服务业”(advanced producer services)、“知识密集型服务业”(knowledge-intensive services)、“专业服务业”(professional services)等概念,也被应用于描述信息和知识程度较高的生产性服务业部门(Daniels et al, 1991)。
生产性服务业趋向于在大都市区和中心城区集中分布,其区位特征和地域差异使其成为“导致区域发展差异的新因素”(Moyart, 2005)。作为“后工业经济”发展的重要引擎,生产性服务业的空间发展机制及其对区域经济和城市化发展的影响一直以来都是经济和城市地理学家关注的热点议题。中国生产性服务业的发展起步于20世纪90年代。虽然起步较晚,但发展迅速,在经济运行和城市发展中的作用日益凸显,成为中国2000年以来“第四波城市化”的主要推动力(叶嘉安等, 2006)。全国经济普查的数据显示,以企业数和从业人员来衡量,生产性服务业在中国经济中的比重分别从2004年的13.3%和11.1%上升到2013年的20.4%和13.4%(中国国家统计局, 2006, 2015)。生产性服务业的增长和集聚对中国工业化背景下的经济空间和城市体系组织都产生了深刻的影响,需要深入和全面地了解这一经济地理现象。
本文在追踪国内外前沿研究的基础上,对生产性服务业发展的动力机制与空间效应研究的主要内容和研究进展进行归纳和总结,并立足中国的经济政治环境,探讨已有理论在中国的适用性。在国家自然科学基金青年项目“政治经济学视角下中国生产性服务业发展的多层级动力机制及其区域城市化效应”(项目批准号：41301181)的资助下,项目组成员进行了实证研究和理论探索。本文按照“模式—机制—效应”的思路,主要讨论以下三个研究议题：生产性服务业的增长和空间格局,生产性服务业发展的动力机制,以及生产性服务业发展的空间效应。
1980年代以来,随着“福特主义”(Fordism)危机的出现和全球化进程的加快,生产性服务业的大幅度增长和空间集聚成为西方发达国家最为重要的经济地理现象之一。诸如“后工业社会”(post-industrial society)(Bell, 1973)、“服务社会”(service society)(Illeris, 1996)、“网络社会”(network society)(Castells, 1996)、“服务世界”(service worlds)(Bryson et al, 2004)等许多概念相继被提出,用于描述和解释西方国家服务业增加和制造业下降带来的经济和社会发展的新特点和新机制。对于生产性服务业的快速增长,学者们主要归因于新国际劳动分工以及生产方式和组织模式变化催生的生产性服务业需求增长及其外部化趋势。
“后福特经济”市场需求的日益碎片化和多变性,使得“福特经济”大规模、批量化的生产方式和垂直一体化的组织模式逐渐被小规模、定制化的生产方式和以柔性专业化(flexible specialization)为特征的水平型组织模式所取代。竞争的主要方式逐渐从价格竞争转向产品的差异化和创新性。与此同时,生产活动组织的地理范围从国家向全球范围扩展,加剧了企业内部管理的复杂性以及企业运营的风险性。研发、金融、设计、咨询、广告等生产性服务业活动在产品开发、技术支持、企业融资、高效管理、市场开拓、风险规避等方面的重要作用,使其成为发达国家增长最快的产业部门(Coffey et al, 1992; Bryson et al, 2004)。1971-1991年20年间,加拿大生产性服务业就业增长了185%,而同期的总就业增长仅为65%,制造业的增长仅为22%(Coffey, 1996)。生产性服务业的快速增长也与其外部化趋势紧密相关。虽然生产性服务可以由企业内部提供,但是,一方面从外部购买可以降低成本和规避范围不经济(diseconomies of scope),有利于企业更有效地配置资源以维持核心竞争力(Rothwell, 1992; Monnoyer et al, 2007);另一方面,面对市场和技术的快速变化和复杂性,企业自身的知识和技术局限也促使其购买大量的外来服务(Lindahl et al, 1999; Wood, 2005)。美国采购协会(American Purchasing Society)1997年的调查数据显示,美国年收入在8000万美元以上的公司,生产性服务业的外部采购占全部外部采购费用的70%以上(刘曙华等,2010)。
相较于制造业和其他服务业,生产性服务业的空间格局呈现出更加不均衡的特征(Moyart,2005)。在城市间层面,生产性服务业集中分布在大都市区(Coffey et al, 1997);在城市内部,生产性服务业主要集聚在中央商务区(CBD)和中心城区(Coffey et al, 1996)。近年来,对西方生产性服务业空间格局演变的研究表明,生产性服务业具有从大都市区向低等级城市、以及从中心城区向外围区域转移的趋势(Gong, 2001; Hermelin, 2007)。恐怖主义威胁的影响进一步加剧了这种转移的趋势。Gong等(2012)的研究表明,“9・11”事件之后,曼哈顿的金融服务业外迁趋势明显,仅在2001-2004年的3年间,曼哈顿金融服务业占纽约的比重就从55.1%下降至51.7%。需要说明的是,虽然生产性服务业的离心化趋势导致了大都市区和CBD一定程度的流失量,但并没有动摇这些区位的核心地位。
随着中国经济市场化进程的加速和对外开放程度的不断深入,1990年代以来中国生产性服务业进入了快速增长时期,吸引了大量学者的关注。相关分析指出,与西方发达国家相比,虽然中国生产性服务业增长的速度较快,但发展水平仍然偏低(刘曙华等,2010)。除全球化和市场化等经济力量外,中国政府在生产性服务业发展过程中也发挥重要作用(Lin, 2004; Wang, 2009; 杨帆等, 2013)。空间格局方面,与西方国家生产性服务业空间集聚和分散并存的发展态势不同,中国的生产性服务业在城市间层面和城市内部均处于向心化的空间集聚阶段(Han et al, 2009; Yi et al, 2011; Yang et al, 2013)。中国生产性服务业在时空演变态势上既呈现出与西方发达国家同期发展阶段趋同的特征,也具有自身独特的发展路径。因此,已有中国生产性服务业的研究,不仅提供了来自发展中国家的实证参考,也进行了具有中国服务业地理学特色的理论探索。
作为在专业化的基础上从工业生产体系中分离出来的产物,生产性服务业与制造业的空间关系是服务业地理学的一个重要研究议题。传统的理论认为,制造业是服务业发展的前提和基础,是服务业产出的重要需求部门,服务业部门的发展必须依靠制造业的发展,其空间格局也依属于制造业的分布(Hansen, 1990; Illeris, 1996)。“福特主义”危机出现后,西方国家的“去工业化”进程和经济转型,使得对制造业和服务业的空间关系产生了新的认识。生产性服务业与制造业的空间联系逐渐弱化,其原因主要有：第一,生产性服务业独立于制造业,成为地方经济发展的重要产业部门(Urry, 1987; Guerrieri et al, 2005);第二,生产性服务业的需求结构发生转变,生产性服务业与制造业的产业联系逐渐松弛,生产性服务业更多地被用作服务生产的中间投入(Goe, 1990; Beyers et al, 1996a)。Goe(1994)指出,工业化时期,生产性服务业的发展是由制造业部门驱动的;后工业化时期,则是服务业部门在起决定性作用。
近年来,对生产性服务业与制造业空间关系演变的研究主要集中在中国等发展中国家。作为承接发达国家制造业投资的目的地,这些国家经济结构的演变不同于后工业化国家从农业向制造业进而向服务业转移的“线性”模式,而是制造业与服务业并行发展(Lin, 2004; Daniels et al, 2005)。生产性服务是制造业生产的中间投入要素之一,也是制造业生产效率和竞争力得以提高的关键,二者存在紧密的投入—产出关系。通常上下游垂直联系的产业,理论上趋向于集中布局,以降低成本和提高效率(Ottaviano et al, 1998; Amiti, 2001)。虽然西方的经验表明,随着产业联系的变化,生产性服务业趋向于集中在大都市区,但其中许多生产性服务业中心也是传统的工业腹地(Noyelle et al, 1984)。城市工业基础在生产性服务业发展初期对其空间分布具有重要的影响。在工业化和第三产业化(tertiarization)共同作用下,发展中国家生产性服务业的空间分布与制造业的关联程度如何?中国改革开放以来独特的乡村工业化和城镇化模式,为这一研究议题提供了难得的实证案例。然而,当前研究仍存在争论,一些学者论证了生产性服务业与制造业在同一城市或邻近城市的协同效应(Ke et al, 2014),一些学者则认为制造业集聚对生产性服务业集聚没有影响(陈建军等, 2009)。对生产性服务业与制造业的空间关联,项目组进行的相关研究(Yeh et al, 2017)①(①Yang F F, Yeh A G O, Wang J, et al. Forthcoming. Regional effects of producer services on manufacturing productivity in China[J]. Applied Geography.)表明,在城市和区县层面,生产性服务业有着与制造业不同的区位需求,没有随着制造业进入其产业空间。进一步研究指出,分析单元对准确把握制造业和生产性服务业空间关系的重要性,由于生产性服务能被长距离销售并且具有区域导向的特征,应该跳出行政单元的限制,在区域层面进行制造业与生产性服务业互动关系的分析。
对于生产性服务业不均衡发展的空间格局,学者们提出了多种解释。首先,基于传统的区位分析思路,一些学者开展了对生产性服务业地理空间的研究,从企业微观层面的实证研究总结了影响生产性服务业空间布局和区位选择的因素(Daniels, 1985; Moulaert et al, 1995; Illeris, 1996),包括：①与接近性相关的因素,如接近客户、信息源、劳动力市场等;②与通达性相关的因素,包括交通、信息基础设施条件等;③与环境相关的因素,包括区位知名度、社会和居住环境、办公设施条件、市场环境状况等;④与决策者个人相关的因素,如个人区位喜好、居住习惯等。
其次,越来越多区域中观层面的理论和实证研究主要从节约生产交易成本和集聚经济等“外部经济性”效应的角度来解释生产性服务业的空间分布特征(Coffey et al, 1992; Goe et al, 2000)。后福特制生产体系的兴起使得产业组织的社会分工程度不断加深,在此背景下,由于生产性服务业最重要的特征是服务使用者和提供者之间面对面的接触,因此接近客户的需求使得生产者服务业呈现出明显的集聚倾向(Moulaert et al, 1991; Goe et al, 2000)。与客户和其他企业紧密的前后向联系使得生产性服务业能在技术和价格方面保持市场竞争力,同时也有利于对瞬息万变的市场需求作出灵活的应对。
第三,与强调企业投入产出联系和交易结构的集聚理论不同,近年来兴起的新区域主义和新经济地理学理论,主要从信息和知识交流以及企业创新的角度来理解生产性服务业的空间格局。这种观点指出生产性服务业的空间集聚并不仅仅是为了减少交易成本,而主要是出于“集体学习”(collective learning)和获取行业内隐形知识(tacit knowledge)的考虑(Isaksen, 2004)。而后者的成功与否很大程度上取决于当地的习俗、合作传统、行为规范、信用体系等非交易型的相互依赖性(non-traded interdependence)和地方化的关系型资本(relational capital)(Wood, 1996; Keeble et al, 2002)。
在这些因素的作用下,一方面,高级生产性服务业为了增强其控制能力和决策的及时性、正确性,通常需要和别的生产性服务业企业进行频繁的面对面交流,向中心城市的CBD 集中的特征越来越明显;另一方面,信息通信技术的进步使得一些不需要与客户保持密切联系、高度标准化的生产性服务业活动和功能逐渐向中小城市或大城市郊区分散(Gong, 2001; Coffey et al, 2004; Han et al, 2009)。西方生产性服务业空间发展动力机制的研究和理论为理解中国生产性服务业的空间分布提供了丰富的借鉴。然而,已有理论解释大多关注产业集群、空间集聚效应和地方化的生产网络等市场机制的影响,相对忽视了政府这一非市场化的行为主体在生产性服务业空间演变中的重要性。Coe等(1998)指出,有利于生产性服务业发展的区域集聚环境和创新氛围并非一蹴而就,而是政府、企业以及其他市场行为主体经过长期的“循环累积”(cumulative causation)的历史过程共同造就的。特别是在中国的转型体制下,对政府角色和作用的研究不足不利于深入理解生产性服务业发展的本质和内涵。学者们探讨了西方理论的适用性,并基于中国的经济基础和政治体制进一步发展和完善了相关理论。
随着中国生产性服务业的兴起,众多学者运用西方理论来解释其发展和区位空间差异(赵群毅等, 2007; 邵辉, 2008; 申玉铭等, 2009)。随着研究的深入,学者们发现,西方发达国家的经验在理解中国生产性服务业发展的独特性时“水土不服”,即使是与西方国家趋同的空间分布格局和演变趋势,其影响机制也不能完全用西方的理论来解释。在全球化和市场化的背景下,市场机制在资源配置和产业活动的空间决策中发挥着越来越大的作用,但是,作为一个转型经济体,中国劳动力市场的培育、土地市场和金融体系的完善、公共基础设施的建设以及产业空间的规划等等都在不同程度上依赖政府的参与和支持。在一些市场化程度较低的生产性服务业部门,政府还可能以国有企业的组织形式直接干预行业的发展。中国政府同时扮演着管治者、市场参与者和公共服务提供者等多重角色(Ma, 2002)。因此,越来越多的研究将政府的政策和行为纳入分析框架,揭示中国生产性服务业发展的动力机制。
第一,政企关系对企业区位特征的影响。改革开放前的计划经济体制,使得国有企业成为中国国民经济的重要基础。改革开放以来政府积极推进和深化国企改革,但其仍是国民经济的重要组成部分。中国政府在生产性服务业的发展中起着重要的推动作用。以信息咨询业为例,1970年代末1980年代初将北京、上海和沈阳作为试点城市,相继创立科技咨询服务部(公司),以满足发展市场经济带来的咨询需求(李靖, 2001)。政府不仅大大简化咨询企业设立的程序和降低行业进入门槛,也直接参与行业发展。2001年基本单位普查数据显示,信息咨询业国有企业、集体企业和事业单位的数量占总企业数的1/4(中国国家统计局, 2003)。这些企业的区位往往直接由政府决定。其中,由中央和地方政府“为提高政治体制运行效率”而设立、具有相应的行政级别的事业单位(Zhang, 2000),既与政府有紧密的行政从属联系,又以企业的身份直接参与市场竞争。一方面,凭借与政府的联系,他们更容易获得关键的经济和政策信息,更具竞争力(Lin et al, 2012);另一方面,国有企业较强的经济实力及其对外部生产性服务的大量需求,使其成为生产性服务业空间布局的直接影响因素。在服务业地理研究中,跨国企业作为主要客户,对生产性服务业区位的重要影响经常被强调,生产性服务业通过与跨国企业的联系嵌入全球生产网络(Keeble et al, 2002; Aslesen et al, 2007; Jacobs et al, 2013)。通过对珠江三角洲知识密集型生产性服务业空间格局演变的研究发现,接近大型国有企业和外资企业对新增知识密集型生产性服务业企业均有正向影响,并且国有企业的影响比外资企业更大(Wang et al, 2016)。
第二,不同社会经济基础和政治体制下生产性服务业的发展动力具有明显差异。政府对市场的调控和经济的干预程度,直接影响进行生产性服务生产的资源和信息投入的可获得性以及市场的竞争生态和“游戏规则”。因此,基于西方经验总结的影响机制,在中国的适用性需要充分探讨。Lin等(2012)发现,由于中国政府对关键信息的控制,“专业信息的可获得性”成为北京吸引信息咨询业企业进驻最重要的因素,占被访企业的24.8%;而在广州,仅2.8%的被访企业认为这是影响其区位选择最重要的因素。此外,西方研究中“接近同行业企业有利于通过竞争和合作促进创新”,“行业协会在规范市场、设立行业专业标准、提供市场信息等方面发挥重要作用”等影响机制,在中国信息咨询业空间发展中的效应并不明显;相反,政治和社会关系等相对被忽视的因素,对中国信息咨询业企业的区位选择和市场竞争力具有重要的影响。中国生产性服务业具有与西方国家相似的集中分布和不均衡发展的演变特征和趋势,但是,不同的发展水平以及根植于不同的政治经济环境,对其空间发展的动力机制产生了不同的影响。
第三,政府政策和行为对生产性服务业空间格局形成的直接作用。计划经济体制下,中国城市以单位为基本组织单元,工业和居住用地混合,商业设施较为匮乏。1988年中国政府实行“土地使用权有偿转让”改革,在土地市场化的作用下,“新城市空间”不断涌现,尤其是新商务区的出现,引发了城市景观最显著的变化(Ma et al, 2005)。Yi等(2011)对广州市生产性服务业空间演变的分析表明,土地使用制度改革、CBD建设、“住禁商”等政策是如何影响生产性服务业的空间格局的。CBD是城市内部生产性服务业发展最重要的区位,然而,与西方城市不同,中国城市的CBD大多不是自发形成的,而是城市规划的产物。正如Han等(2009)所指出的,中国政府通过在区域层面设立政策特区、在城市层面发展工业园和办公区直接影响产业活动的区位。
Kloosterman(2010)认为,不同的经济基础和制度框架会产生一个个独特的“滤器”(filter),这些“滤器”常常表现出自我强化和路径依赖(path-dependency)的特征,影响产业发展在具体地域的表现形态。中国的研究表明,对生产性服务业的发展和空间格局的研究,有必要拓展对地方经济政治环境的认识。中国幅员辽阔,区域和城市之间的发展水平差异较大,同时,在转型期背景下,政府—企业、中央—地方之间的关系也较为复杂。因此,应该从政府和市场互动的视角,探讨企业、部门、城市区域、国家政策、全球网络联系等多层级因素的相互作用及其对生产性服务业发展的实际效应。在此基础上进而分析中国1949年以来政府对市场从“内部化”向“外部化”逐步转变的历程及其带来的经济转型和城市空间变化(Yeh et al, 2015a)。政府对经济的调控以及资金、土地和劳动力等要素市场的发育程度,形成了生产性服务业发展不同的动力机制,为此,需要从政治经济基础出发,构建更具包容性的服务业地理学发展理论。
西方文献中,生产性服务业被标榜为“企业层面对抗福特主义危机的胜利者”“柔性生产与分配体系的创造者”“新技术与战略挑战的斡旋者”(Moulaert et al, 1995)。生产性服务业对西方国家内部不同经济层面经济发展的重要贡献,主要表现在：①生产性服务业是1970年代制造业活动转移后城市和区域就业、收入、税收的主要来源,是城市和区域经济复兴的重要推动力(Coffey, 2000);②生产性服务业属于城市经济活动的“基本部分”,不仅是全球经济时代贸易流的重要部分,也通过与本地产业的联系产生积极的乘数效应(Illeris, 1996);③生产性服务业通过与产品生产和其他服务活动的复杂联系,对区域生产率和竞争力的提升发挥很大的作用(Hutton, 2005)。由于生产性服务业不均衡发展的空间布局,其所在的城市或区域,在经济发展中具有明显的优势。Bourne(1991)指出,无法从制造业经济升级到服务经济或高新技术产业的城市,将面临衰败的局面。在全球层面,生产性服务业的集聚形成了“世界城市”(world city)和“全球城市”(global city),集中了控制和指挥世界经济的各种职能(Friedmann et al, 1982; Sassen, 2001)。
生产性服务业作为中国经济发展的重要新兴产业部门,也带来了深刻的城市化效应,引起了城市体系的重组,城市体系结构的重心逐渐从中小城市转向大城市(Lin, 2002)。1980、1990年代乡村工业化和城镇化的发展模式形成了大批中小城市,并一定程度上削弱了中心城市在区域经济中的地位。然而,得益于其集聚经济和都市环境的优势,大城市成为生产性服务业的首选区位而成功“复位”(reposition)。改革开放后,东莞、中山等工业城市的崛起,严重影响了广州中心城市的地位,其工业总产值占区域的比重从1992年的48.2%下降至2003年21.7%;生产性服务业的比重则稳步增加,2000-2003年期间从33.2%上升至35.1% (Yang et al, 2007)。通过城市职能和区域分工的转变,广州重新明确了在区域经济的中心地位。
综合考虑生产性服务的输出功能以及中心地理论,生产性服务业不仅对所在城市的经济发展产生重大影响,也对所在区域的发展产生重要作用。除作为重要的经济部门直接创造产值和就业外,生产性服务业还通过服务投入以及营造创新环境(innovative milieu),促进其他经济活动的技术和产品创新(Bailly et al, 1987; 江静等, 2007)。创新环境的营造具有空间邻近性特征,其效应的发挥主要集中于所在城市;而服务投入则可通过服务输出作用于周边城市,提升区域整体竞争力。MacPherson(1997)的研究指出,生产性服务业发展水平较高的地区,制造业的生产率和创新能力也较高;反之亦然。针对当前实证研究主要以城市为分析单元,项目组探讨了中国生产性服务业对制造业生产率的区域溢出效应,并划分了主要生产性服务业中心的市场服务范围①。该项研究也进一步支持了前述关于生产性服务业与制造业空间联系的判断,揭示了二者在区域层面的“协同效应”(synergy effect)。
城市区域研究的萌芽思想可以追溯至19世纪末,霍华德编著的《明天：一条通向真正改革的和平道路》,主张将城市周边地域的城镇纳入城市规划的考虑范围(引自顾朝林,2009)。1980年代以来,经济全球化和生产性服务业的快速增长深刻而全面地作用于世界城市化进程,不仅带来了大城市尤其是世界城市/全球城市的迅速发展,在区域范围内,还形成了规模庞大的“全球城市区域”(global city-region)和“巨型城市区域”(mega-city region)(Scott, 2001; Hall et al, 2006)。在这些巨型城市区域中,城市间经济要素与人员等交流频繁, 城市以前所未有的速度结合起来,形成多极多层次的城市网络。
巨型城市区域被认为是当前世界经济运行最具竞争力的地域单元。Hall(1999)最初在东亚地区定义了巨型城市区域,包括中国的珠江三角洲和长江三角洲、日本的东海道(东京—大阪)走廊以及大雅加达等地。这一概念之后被应用于分析欧洲的区域城市体系组织(Hall et al, 2006)。作为全球化背景下组织全球金融和信息流动以及促进全球资本扩张最重要的产业部门,生产性服务业成为巨型城市区域发展的重要机制。已有的研究表明,巨型城市区域的特征主要包括多中心性(polycentricity)、功能性和网络性三个方面,而这三个分析维度都与生产性服务业的发展紧密相关。第一,生产性服务业在区域中的多中心分布是巨型城市区域多中心性形成最重要的因素之一(Hoyler et al, 2008);第二,巨型城市区域在全球经济体系中承担节点功能,区域中各个 “功能性城市区”(functional urban region)是由生产性服务业产生的各种实体流和信息流联系成一体的(Hanssens et al, 2013);第三,除实体的交通等基础设施网络外,不同生产性服务功能上的分工与互补形成的联系,也是巨型城市区域功能联系网络的重要构成要素(Lüthi et al, 2010)。因此,基于生产性服务业企业内部办公网络联系的“联锁网络模型”(interlocking network model)成为界定巨型城市区域和分析区域城市之间“关联网络”最具影响力的模型(Taylor, 2001, 2004)。
借助全球化的力量,中国城市和区域发展陆续出现了“都市区化、都市区连绵化、连绵区巨型化的趋势”(于涛方, 2015)。近年来,随着区域经济转型和生产性服务业的增长,巨型城市区域的概念和分析方法被应用于衡量中国巨型城市区域形成和发育的成熟程度(陆玭等, 2010)。例如,文余源等(2015)识别出10个巨型城市区域,包括3个初步形成的巨型城市区域(京津冀、长三角、珠三角),4个正在崛起的巨型城市区域,以及3个潜在发展的巨型城市区域。项目组着重分析了珠三角巨型城市区域生产性服务业网络联系对区域城市的联结情况(Yeh et al, 2015b)。由于“形成网络的企业”并不仅仅局限于生产性服务业企业的内部机构,也包括产业链上的不同企业(Lüthi et al, 2010),因此,与以往研究不同的是,不仅考察了生产性服务业企业内部办公网络,也将企业的外部业务网络联系纳入分析框架。在生产性服务业发展下,珠三角的城市体系组织出现了与工业化背景不同的发展模式：①珠三角的制造业以出口导向型为主,其产品生产和销售涉及的主要是区域的外向联系,而生产性服务业更倾向于服务区域市场。②生产性服务业联系具有等级结构的特点以及偏好中心城市的外向联系特征,而工业联系则涉及不同规模的城市。生产性服务业发展下的城市化进程,营造了新的空间秩序,重塑了中国城市区域的空间建构和功能组织。
进入21世纪以来,由于中国长期依赖出口导向和劳动密集型制造业发展模式的弊端逐渐显现,发展高附加值和高增长率的生产性服务业成为各地区实现产业结构优化升级的现实选择和重要途径。结合中国转型期的特殊环境,系统和深入地了解生产性服务业发展的规律,对中国经济转型和生产性服务业发展的决策指导具有重要的现实意义。本文基于已有生产性服务业研究的丰硕成果,对生产性服务业发展的动力机制及其空间效应的主要研究内容及理论解释进行了梳理,并结合中国的实证经验探讨了这些理论在中国的适用性。主要结论为：①中国生产性服务业在时空演变态势上既呈现出与西方发达国家同期发展阶段趋同的特征,也具有自身独特的发展路径;②转型期政府—市场、政府—企业、中央—地方等关系,使得基于西方经验建立的生产性服务业发展动力机制的理论,在中国的适用性需要充分探讨;③中国生产性服务业的增长和集聚促进了大城市和巨型城市区域的发展,改变了工业化背景下的经济空间格局和城市体系组织模式;与西方研究不同的是,中国生产性服务业的空间效应需考虑生产性服务业与制造业联系的影响。随着中国政治经济发展进入新时期、交通基础设施和技术条件的进一步提升,为中国生产性服务业发展提出了新的研究命题。
第一,高铁时代生产性服务业空间发展的新格局。已有研究表明,交通条件的改善可使生产性服务业更加灵活地进行布局,使其既保持与中心城市的经济和社会联系,又享受中心城市周边地区低成本、环境舒适等优势。因此,交通条件的变化往往会引起生产性服务业的空间重组,具有向郊区和小城市扩散的趋势(Beyers et al, 1996b)。2008年京津城际列车通车,中国铁路正式迈入“高铁时代”,截至2016年底,中国高铁运营里程已达2.2万km。高铁快速、大容量的特点大大地提高了城市之间的可达性,对城市经济和社会发展各方面都产生了深刻的影响。中国的高铁网络是世界上线路最长、覆盖地域范围最广的高铁项目,高铁发展带来的交通可达性的提升如何影响生产性服务业的空间发展?需要从不同的尺度层面研究中国生产性服务业空间格局的演变。
第二,政府和市场互动下生产性服务业发展的新动力机制。政府—市场关系是一个动态的过程,在不同时期和不同地区有不同的表现形态(Block, 1994)。中国经济仍处于转型期,随着经济改革的深化和政治体制的完善,政府将进一步外部化各类要素市场,政府配置资源的能力也将发生变化。新时期政府—市场关系的进一步演变,对生产性服务业企业的空间行为将产生怎样的影响?应持续关注经济和体制发展产生的新机制,立足于中国的经验,推动相关理论的发展。
第三,生产性服务业发展背景下区域经济空间格局的演变趋势。作为主导产业,生产性服务业趋于集中分布的空间需求直接导致了后工业经济区域间的发展差异。然而,在中国等发展中国家,制造业在国民经济中的地位及其与生产性服务业的关系,使生产性服务业对区域经济空间格局的效应相对复杂化。生产性服务业对区域的溢出效应表现在以下两方面：一方面,通过服务输出,生产性服务业能对中小城市制造业生产率的提升发挥作用,促进这些城市的发展;另一方面,在新的信息通信技术引导下,地价、劳动力成本以及地方政府的产业政策调整等因素可能对大城市特定的第二、三产业产生“挤出”效应,为区域低等级城市带来新的发展机遇。最终区域空间经济格局的演变是趋向“极化”或是“扁平化”,尚需要深入的实证研究。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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本文在新经济地理学理论的基础之上,结合新古典经济学和城市经济学理论尝试性地提出了生产性服务业集聚的理论框架,探索研究了中国生产性服务业集聚的成因与发展趋势,并采用全国222个地级以上城市的截面数据进行了实证分析。研究表明知识密集度、信息技术水平、城市和政府规模对生产性服务业集聚有显著的影响,并表现出一定的区域差异性,与制造业集聚相比,生产性服务业集聚不论在受地理因素影响方面,还是受累积循环因果关系影响方面都较弱。另外,根据服务业集聚与城市规模非线性关系研究表明,由于中国东部与中西部地区存在截然相反的集聚路径,这使得中国东部地区城市将长期存在集聚效应,而中西部地区在城市相对规模达到一定的熵值后集聚效应开始递减,为此,文章提出了中国城市差异化发展战略的政策措施。
An empirical study on the determinants of producer service agglomeration: Evidence from 222 Chinese cities [J].
本文在新经济地理学理论的基础之上,结合新古典经济学和城市经济学理论尝试性地提出了生产性服务业集聚的理论框架,探索研究了中国生产性服务业集聚的成因与发展趋势,并采用全国222个地级以上城市的截面数据进行了实证分析。研究表明知识密集度、信息技术水平、城市和政府规模对生产性服务业集聚有显著的影响,并表现出一定的区域差异性,与制造业集聚相比,生产性服务业集聚不论在受地理因素影响方面,还是受累积循环因果关系影响方面都较弱。另外,根据服务业集聚与城市规模非线性关系研究表明,由于中国东部与中西部地区存在截然相反的集聚路径,这使得中国东部地区城市将长期存在集聚效应,而中西部地区在城市相对规模达到一定的熵值后集聚效应开始递减,为此,文章提出了中国城市差异化发展战略的政策措施。
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本文分析了生产者服务业发展提升制造业效率的内在机理。作为高级要素投入的生产者服务业的发展，是制造业效率提高的重要源泉。生产者服务业的发展提升了自身效率，降低了制造业单位产品的生产成本，从而最终提升了制造业的竞争力。本文运用中国地区层面1998-2004年以及细分行业1993-2003年面板数据进行回归的分析结果表明：（1）生产者服务业的扩张促进了制造业的整体效率提高；（2）交通运输仓储和邮电通信业对劳动密集型行业影响最为明显；（3）资本密集型行业的效率提升，在很大程度上受到金融保险业发展的影响；（4）科学研究对制造业的影响具有滞后性，它与当年制造业的效率呈负相关，但可以提升次年制造业的竞争力，并且对技术密集型行业影响最大。
Development of producer services and improvement in manufacturing productivity: An empirical analysis based on regional and sectoral panel datasets [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-9621.2007.08.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
本文分析了生产者服务业发展提升制造业效率的内在机理。作为高级要素投入的生产者服务业的发展，是制造业效率提高的重要源泉。生产者服务业的发展提升了自身效率，降低了制造业单位产品的生产成本，从而最终提升了制造业的竞争力。本文运用中国地区层面1998-2004年以及细分行业1993-2003年面板数据进行回归的分析结果表明：（1）生产者服务业的扩张促进了制造业的整体效率提高；（2）交通运输仓储和邮电通信业对劳动密集型行业影响最为明显；（3）资本密集型行业的效率提升，在很大程度上受到金融保险业发展的影响；（4）科学研究对制造业的影响具有滞后性，它与当年制造业的效率呈负相关，但可以提升次年制造业的竞争力，并且对技术密集型行业影响最大。
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生产性服务业是西方发达国家经济中增长幅度最快的行业之一,甚至成为了许多发达国家的支柱产业,生产性服务业对发展中国家经济发展的作用也日益得到体现.本文从发达国家和发展中国家两个层面总结了生产性服务业发展的总体状况,并分析了全球生产性服务业发展的趋势,即新的生产性服务业类型不断涌现;服务外包化;生产层级化、集聚化发展以及服务协同与融合发展.可以认为,生产性服务业的发展成为了国家竞争优势和区域竞争力提升的重要动力.
Developing situation and tendency of producer services industries at home and abroad [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-8616.2010.06.015 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
生产性服务业是西方发达国家经济中增长幅度最快的行业之一,甚至成为了许多发达国家的支柱产业,生产性服务业对发展中国家经济发展的作用也日益得到体现.本文从发达国家和发展中国家两个层面总结了生产性服务业发展的总体状况,并分析了全球生产性服务业发展的趋势,即新的生产性服务业类型不断涌现;服务外包化;生产层级化、集聚化发展以及服务协同与融合发展.可以认为,生产性服务业的发展成为了国家竞争优势和区域竞争力提升的重要动力.
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世界城市区域网络中的我国巨型城市区域 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-6000.2010.09.014 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
随着经济全球化的推进,巨型城市区域成为参与国际竞争的重要单元,目前逐渐成为政府和学界关注的焦点议题。由于我国经济的迅速发展和国际大国形象的逐步确立,国际资本大量涌入我国,1990年代以后,我国巨型城市区域的发展引人注目,在参与国际经济竞争中起着重要作用。本文借鉴西方学者关于巨型城市区域的研究框架,从跨国公司、生产者服务业和对外联系三个方面,对世界巨型城市区域进行了分等,并分析了我国巨型城市区域的地位。
Chinese mega-city region in the global city-city network [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-6000.2010.09.014 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
随着经济全球化的推进,巨型城市区域成为参与国际竞争的重要单元,目前逐渐成为政府和学界关注的焦点议题。由于我国经济的迅速发展和国际大国形象的逐步确立,国际资本大量涌入我国,1990年代以后,我国巨型城市区域的发展引人注目,在参与国际经济竞争中起着重要作用。本文借鉴西方学者关于巨型城市区域的研究框架,从跨国公司、生产者服务业和对外联系三个方面,对世界巨型城市区域进行了分等,并分析了我国巨型城市区域的地位。
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京沪生产性服务业比较研究 [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2009020018 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
基于产业关联与空间分布的区域比较研究,探讨京沪生产性服务业发 展的一般规律及其差异性.研究表明:①京沪生产性服务业发展速度加快,金融业、交通运输业、房地产业是其主体;北京生产性服务业已步入发展成熟阶段,而上 海尚处于发展起步阶段.②京沪第三产业对生产性服务业的中间需求最大,且呈现上升趋势;北京生产性服务业对服务经济的支撑作用突出,而上海生产性服务业与 制造业的融合发展趋势更为明显.③京沪服务业对金融业的中间需求最大,但需求结构存在明显差异.④京沪制造业对生产性服务业的中间需求结构差异显著,北京 制造业中间需求结构趋于高级化,而上海制造业对中间投入服务的消耗层次偏低.⑤京沪生产性服务业集中分布于中心区和近郊区,圈层衰减特征明显;不同行业乃 至同一行业、不同发展阶段的空间分布特征均存在差异,但各行业空间集中与分散的变化趋势总体上存在一致性.
Comparative research on producer services between Beijing and Shanghai [J].https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2009020018 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
基于产业关联与空间分布的区域比较研究,探讨京沪生产性服务业发 展的一般规律及其差异性.研究表明:①京沪生产性服务业发展速度加快,金融业、交通运输业、房地产业是其主体;北京生产性服务业已步入发展成熟阶段,而上 海尚处于发展起步阶段.②京沪第三产业对生产性服务业的中间需求最大,且呈现上升趋势;北京生产性服务业对服务经济的支撑作用突出,而上海生产性服务业与 制造业的融合发展趋势更为明显.③京沪服务业对金融业的中间需求最大,但需求结构存在明显差异.④京沪制造业对生产性服务业的中间需求结构差异显著,北京 制造业中间需求结构趋于高级化,而上海制造业对中间投入服务的消耗层次偏低.⑤京沪生产性服务业集中分布于中心区和近郊区,圈层衰减特征明显;不同行业乃 至同一行业、不同发展阶段的空间分布特征均存在差异,但各行业空间集中与分散的变化趋势总体上存在一致性.
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中国巨型城市区的识别与格局 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-0751.2015.11.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
以全球城市为区域发展中心的"巨型城市区"(Mega-City Regions,MCR)概念最早由P.Hall正式提出后,其作为全球化背景下的一种新型城市化空间形态受到广泛关注,并成为欧美国家提升国际竞争力的新型区域单元.在我国,巨型城市区的标准应从人口密度、非农产业从业人员及其占城镇人口比重、从业人员非农比重、高级生产服务业区位商和网络联通量等方面识别.以《全国主体功能区规划》确定的城市化战略格局为基础,可识别出初步形成、正在崛起、潜在发展三种类型10大巨型城市区,它们构成了我国新型城镇化推进"两横三纵"战略格局的中坚骨架,是我国参与全球竞争的支撑性空间单元.
Definition and identification of mega-city regions in China [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-0751.2015.11.006 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
以全球城市为区域发展中心的"巨型城市区"(Mega-City Regions,MCR)概念最早由P.Hall正式提出后,其作为全球化背景下的一种新型城市化空间形态受到广泛关注,并成为欧美国家提升国际竞争力的新型区域单元.在我国,巨型城市区的标准应从人口密度、非农产业从业人员及其占城镇人口比重、从业人员非农比重、高级生产服务业区位商和网络联通量等方面识别.以《全国主体功能区规划》确定的城市化战略格局为基础,可识别出初步形成、正在崛起、潜在发展三种类型10大巨型城市区,它们构成了我国新型城镇化推进"两横三纵"战略格局的中坚骨架,是我国参与全球竞争的支撑性空间单元.
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中国生产性服务业发展与空间分布 [J].
从分行业的角度探讨了中国生产性服务业的发展特征及其在城市体系中的空间分布。研究表明，中国生产性服务业的发展水平还处在初级阶段，虽然高级别生产性服务业增长较快，但是所占比重较小。空间分布上，生产性服务业倾向于集中在特大城市。由于其在经济发展中发挥重要的作用，这种分布特征重组了城市等级结构和城市之间的经济联系。随着中国经济的持续增长和政府的政策支持，对生产性服务业的需求将大大增加。全球化背景下，发展生产性服务业也成为重要的城市发展战略。但是，生产性服务业不均衡的分布格局决定了大城市和特大城市在新一轮的城市发展中具有更大的竞争力。因此，中小城市在发展生产性服务业时必须进行深入的分析，以免造成用地和资金的浪费。
Growth and spatial development of producer services in China [J].
从分行业的角度探讨了中国生产性服务业的发展特征及其在城市体系中的空间分布。研究表明，中国生产性服务业的发展水平还处在初级阶段，虽然高级别生产性服务业增长较快，但是所占比重较小。空间分布上，生产性服务业倾向于集中在特大城市。由于其在经济发展中发挥重要的作用，这种分布特征重组了城市等级结构和城市之间的经济联系。随着中国经济的持续增长和政府的政策支持，对生产性服务业的需求将大大增加。全球化背景下，发展生产性服务业也成为重要的城市发展战略。但是，生产性服务业不均衡的分布格局决定了大城市和特大城市在新一轮的城市发展中具有更大的竞争力。因此，中小城市在发展生产性服务业时必须进行深入的分析，以免造成用地和资金的浪费。
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中国城市化的第四波 [J].The forth wave of urbanization in China [J]. |
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中国巨型城市地区: 发展变化与规划思考 [J].Development of China's mega-city regions and the planning reflection [J]. |
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北京都市区生产者服务业的空间结构—兼与西方主流观点的比较 [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1002-1329.2007.05.003 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
分别以北京第二次全国基本单位普查数据和都市区228个"街区单元"为属性数据和空间数据,运用空间分布实态模拟、空间自相关、因子分析等定量方法,完成了北京都市区生产者服务业空间结构的实证研究.总结提炼出北京都市区生产者服务业空间结构的主要特征和结构模式,并将结论与西方研究的主流观点进行了比较,进而发现了转型期我国都市区快速发展的生产者服务业在整体空间结构、功能地域结构等方面的独特性.
Spatial structure of producer services in Beijing metropolitan area [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1002-1329.2007.05.003 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
分别以北京第二次全国基本单位普查数据和都市区228个"街区单元"为属性数据和空间数据,运用空间分布实态模拟、空间自相关、因子分析等定量方法,完成了北京都市区生产者服务业空间结构的实证研究.总结提炼出北京都市区生产者服务业空间结构的主要特征和结构模式,并将结论与西方研究的主流观点进行了比较,进而发现了转型期我国都市区快速发展的生产者服务业在整体空间结构、功能地域结构等方面的独特性.
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The impact of urban structure on the location of producer services [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069700000005 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article aims at estimating the density functions and gradients related to the locations of services in Milan. Density curves constructed from data on the location of producer services confirm theoretical expectations and the pattern of their location clearly assumes a quadratic exponential shape. The better to understand the interrelation between services and space at the intra-urban level, a number of indices and coeficients have been analysed. In order to verify the impact of urban structures on services locations a comparative analysis has been made on the effects of a new underground line. The impact of urban structure on services location has been confirmed.
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Location of vertically linked industries: Agglomeration versus comparative advantage [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2002.12.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper analyses the effects of trade liberalisation on the location of manufacturing firms that are vertically linked and differ in factor intensities. I extend the new economic geography literature, by embedding a model with vertical linkages within a Heckscher hlin framework. I show that lower trade costs can lead to an agglomeration of all upstream and downstream firms in one country, even when they differ in factor intensities. These industrial location patterns do not always lead to factor price convergence; and may result in an increase in returns to both factors in the country where the agglomeration locates.
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The role of proximity and knowledge interaction between head offices and KIBS [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00391.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The extant literature suggests that a mutual dependency exists between head office location and the location of knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) in major cities and capital regions. This is often referred to as a joint head-office orporate-service complex. However, few studies have looked into the functioning and outcomes of these complexes. How concentrated are KIBS and head offices in major cities? How important is geographical proximity in the knowledge interaction between head offices and KIBS? What are the actual outcomes of head office IBS relationships, especially as far as innovation is concerned? These issues are discussed by using empirical evidence from Norway. The empirical results indicate that geographical proximity in itself is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for successful relations between KIBS and head offices in cities. However, agglomeration in city regions can provide positive externalities for both parties. Other types of proximity, such as social and cognitive proximity, also play a vital role in the outcome of KIBS-client relations. There is therefore a certain degree of heterogeneity, but not all projects lead to profound learning and innovation in the actors in this complex.
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Service activities and regional development: Some European examples [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a190653 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Two general issues relating to the nature of the service sector are addressed in this paper. The first concerns the growing interdependence between the secondary and tertiary sectors, largely a function of the increased use of service functions in the manufacturing process; these service inputs may be either internalized or externalized by a manufacturing firm. The second issue concerns the role of the service sector in promoting regional economic development. It is generally acknowledged that, although it may be important for a region to possess a sufficient level of service activity so that its firms are not required to make major service imports, because of externality effects, high-order service activities tend to locate in major cities. Can it therefore be concluded that the locational pattern of the service sector has a minimal potential for reducing regional disparities, and that it would be unrealistic to expect the diffusion of services into peripheral regions? This may be the case for higher order services, but those more directly linked to industrial production may indeed be able to be decentralized. The potential for the decentralization of services activities is examined both within a conceptual framework and by reviewing the results of certain empirical studies conducted in Switzerland.
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The coming of post-industrial society [M]. |
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Trends in the producer services in the USA: The last decade [M]// |
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Explaining the demand for producer services: Is cost-driven externalization the major factor [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1435-5597.1996.tb00669.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT Producer services employment has grown rapidly within advanced economies in recent years. The bases of demand related to this growth are not well understood by regional scientists. A common view is that this growth is largely attributable to cost-driven factors and vertical disintegration processes on the part of producer service users. This paper demonstrates that cost-driven externalization is not the most important force underlying growth in demand for producer services. The need for specialized knowledge is by far the most important factor behind producer services demand, combined with a variety of other cost, quasi-cost, and non-cost-driven forces.
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Lone eagles and high fliers in rural producer services [J].
Producer service firms are growing rapidly in rural areas. Included in this expansion are ?Lone Eagles??aexport-oriented sole proprietors?aand ?High Fliers??aexport-oriented companies with at least one employee. Interviews with 240 rural producer service firms located in a diverse sample of rural counties show that about 40 percent of the businesses are Lone Eagles or High Fliers. They are located in rural areas for quality-of-...
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The roles of the state in the economy [M]// |
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Recycling urban systems and metropolitan areas: A geographical agenda for the 1990s and beyond [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/143932 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
As we enter the post-recession 1990s, individual metropolitan areas and entire urban systems face daunting problems in adapting to continued global economic restructuring, ethnocultural changes, deterioration of the built environment, and ecological degradation. This paper reviews the dimensions of these problems and offers a critique of contemporary theories, processes, and practices of urban development. It argues the need for new urban forms, and specifically for the reuse, intensification, and reurbanization of older urban areas and for an overall reduction in the waste of land and resources created by our cut-and-burn style of development. It then examines the challenges and constraints involved in shifting the relative balance of development between greenfield and existing built-up areas. Two case studies, one of the reversal of inner city population decline in Toronto, the other a more comprehensive exercise to evaluate alternative urban forms, are introduced to illustrate how difficult it will be to redirect current trajectories of urban growth toward more efficient, socially equitable, and ecologically sustainable urban futures.
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Service worlds: People, organisations, technologies [M]. |
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Recycling urban systems and metropolitan areas: A geographical agenda for the 1990s and beyond [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/143932 URL 摘要
As we enter the post-recession 1990s, individual metropolitan areas and entire urban systems face daunting problems in adapting to continued global economic restructuring, ethnocultural changes, deterioration of the built environment, and ecological degradation. This paper reviews the dimensions of these problems and offers a critique of contemporary theories, processes, and practices of urban development. It argues the need for new urban forms, and specifically for the reuse, intensification, and reurbanization of older urban areas and for an overall reduction in the waste of land and resources created by our cut-and-burn style of development. It then examines the challenges and constraints involved in shifting the relative balance of development between greenfield and existing built-up areas. Two case studies, one of the reversal of inner city population decline in Toronto, the other a more comprehensive exercise to evaluate alternative urban forms, are introduced to illustrate how difficult it will be to redirect current trajectories of urban growth toward more efficient, socially equitable, and ecologically sustainable urban futures.
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Rise of the network society: The information age: Economy, society and culture [M]. |
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Debunking the myth of localized agglomerations: The development of a regionalized service economy in South-East England [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-2754.1998.00001.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract The central argument of this paper is that localized clusters of economic activity, or ‘agglomerations’, have been overemphasized in economic geography since the mid-1980s. In particular, such analyses are too manufacturing-biased, and place too much weight on the importance of local supply, market and partnership linkages. We will re-emphasize the service-based nature of growth in the core region of the UK economy, and will explore how a broad band of producer service activity is emerging in the Western Arc, owing largely to common locational logics, including back-office decentralization and the new firm-formation process. Such growth is both stimulated and supported by the high demand levels of the regional economy, but evidence suggests that the linkages of such firms extend well beyond the ‘local’, to cover at least the ‘Greater South-East’. Furthermore, the international element in service growth needs to be recognized, as highlighted by the concentration of US foreign direct investment in the software industry along the M4 corridor. When areas outside the South-East are considered (such as Edinburgh, Tyne and Wear, Cheshire), the evidence appears to support Allen's (1992) notion of a ‘regionalized mode of service growth’ in the South-East.
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Forward and backward linkages of producer-services establishments: Evidence from the Montreal metropolitan area [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.17.7.604 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Abstract Producer services are intermediate-demand functions that serve as inputs into the production of goods or of other services. Despite the obvious economic importance of producer services, research on these activities is still in a relatively early stage of development. This paper attempts to contribute to the general understanding of the structure and the functioning of producer services in metropolitan economies by providing concrete answers to several questions currently being debated by researchers. For example, do producer services exist primarily to respond to demand from the manufacturing sector, and to what extent are producer services exported beyond the boundaries of the local economy? The empirical analysis is based upon a survey, conducted in 1992 and 1993, of 324 producer-services establishments in the Montreal metropolitan area. An innovative aspect of the present study is to view producer-services establishments simultaneously as producers and as consumers of intermediate-demand inputs.
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The geographies of producer services [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.21.2.170 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
During the past decade, governments throughout the developing world have implemented policies promoting political and economic decentralization. To date, the study of decentralization has focused on political issues. while the consequences of these policies for geographical patterns of development have been largely ignored, This paper explores the geographical impacts of political decentralization with a study of changing patterns of real estate development in the metropolitan area of Caracas, Venezuela. In Venezuela, decentralization policies have created incentives for the fragmentation of the metropolitan area into a number of municipal governmental units, each pursuing its own developmental strategy. Resulting changes in the geographical patterns of real estate investment are examined. Particular consideration is given to development of a socially exclusive, multifunctional enclave within the city, that both divides and reorders the spatial structure of Caracas.
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Producer services and systems of flexible production [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00420989220080841 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
During the decade of the 1980s, regional science began to devote more and more attention to the influence of two phenomena upon the structure and functioning of the space-economy: (1) service activities, in general, and producer services, in particular, and (2) flexible production systems. This paper explores the extent to which these two major preoccupations of contemporary regional science can be integrated, and attempts to contribute to the understanding of the growth and location of producer services by examining the manner in which an analytical framework based upon flexible production may be applied to the latter. The exploration begins with a summary and criticism of the flexible production approach. This is followed by a discussion of the growth of producer services and of the trends towards the increasing externalisation of these activities. Next, the appropriateness of employing a flexible production framework in the case of producer services is examined. The significance of the concept of flexible production for understanding the location of producer services is then explored. Finally, the paper examines the effects upon the labour force of flexibility in the production and use of producer services.
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The intrametropolitan location of high order services: Patterns, factors and mobility in Montreal [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1435-5597.1996.tb00667.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT The issue of the interurban location of high order service activities (i. e., producer services and finance, insurance and real estate services) was one of the major areas investigated by service industries researchers during the 1980s; the spatial concentration of high order services in a relatively small number of large metropolitan areas is now a well documented fact. In the 1990s, researchers are increasingly turning their focus on the intrametropolitan location of these activities. In particular, certain studies have shown that high order services have begun to leave their "natural habitat"090009the CBD090009in order to locate in suburban office agglomerations. This paper explores the intrametropolitan location issue in the specific context of the Montreal Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), employing data derived from a detailed survey of 324 high order service establishments. We first examine patterns of intrametropolitan mobility, in terms of both establishments and employment; spatial stability, rather than decentralization, is evident. Next, we explore locational factors from the viewpoint of site attributes. Accessibility to the establishment for clients and land costs or rental prices emerge as the major factors. Finally, we conduct a logistic regression analysis in order to identify the principal characteristics of high order service establishments that may be used to explain their location within the Montreal CMA. The majority of the characteristics found to be statistically significant involve market linkages to clients, either in terms of the geographic distribution of clients or the types of clients served.
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| [35] |
The growth and location of high order services in the Canadian urban system, 1971-1991 [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.00087 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In spite of the considerable economic importance of high order (intermediate demand) services, research on the growth and location of these activities has remained at a fairly aggregate level. The behavior of the individual elements of this group has rarely been documented in detail. In this paper, we seek to determine if individual high order service activities are becoming spatially more concentrated or dispersed across the Canadian urban system, and to determine if differential rates of growth may be observed by region and by urban size category. These issues are of considerable importance in the ongoing debate concerning the impact of the tertiarization of the economy on uneven spatial development. We examine the performance and location of 17 individual high order service activities over a set of 152 Canadian urban areas with populations greater than 10,000 inhabitants. Most of these activities are highly concentrated in a small number of very large urban areas, and their level of concentration declined only very slightly over the period 1971 1991. We conclude with an examination of the factors underlying the geographic concentration of high order services at the upper end of the urban hierarchy.
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| [36] |
The growth and location of high order services in the Canadian urban system, 1971-1991 [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-0124.00087 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In spite of the considerable economic importance of high order (intermediate demand) services, research on the growth and location of these activities has remained at a fairly aggregate level. The behavior of the individual elements of this group has rarely been documented in detail. In this paper, we seek to determine if individual high order service activities are becoming spatially more concentrated or dispersed across the Canadian urban system, and to determine if differential rates of growth may be observed by region and by urban size category. These issues are of considerable importance in the ongoing debate concerning the impact of the tertiarization of the economy on uneven spatial development. We examine the performance and location of 17 individual high order service activities over a set of 152 Canadian urban areas with populations greater than 10,000 inhabitants. Most of these activities are highly concentrated in a small number of very large urban areas, and their level of concentration declined only very slightly over the period 1971 1991. We conclude with an examination of the factors underlying the geographic concentration of high order services at the upper end of the urban hierarchy.
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Service industries: A geographical appraisal [M]. |
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The locational geography of advanced producer services firms in the United Kingdom [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-9006(95)96164-M URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Service industries and Asia-Pacific cities: Introduction and overview [M]// |
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The changing geography of advanced producer services: Theoretical and empirical perspectives [M]. |
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World city formation: An agenda for research and action [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.1982.tb00384.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The development of a global system of major cities is examined and the implications of this trend for the world economic system are considered particularly in terms of the effect on international movements of capital. An attempt is made to review the relevant literature and present a bibliography on this topic. (summary in FRE GER SPA) (ANNOTATION)
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| [42] |
The changing geography of producer services employment in Britain [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343408712331344568 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper examines the changing geography of producer services employment in Britain between 1971 and 1981 using data from the Census of Employment. The study begins with a review of alternative views on the service sector and its relationship to economic growth, and the place of producer services within the division of labour is described. It is shown that there is a pronounced urban and regional differentiation in producer services employment. Factors operating to increase the concentration of such employment are indentified, as are counteracting tendencies favouring deconcentration. Individual producer services industries are shown to display different locational logic, and varying trends of concentration and deconcentration during 1971 81. Overall the maintenance of the spatial concentration of producer services employment in southern Britain, coupled with relative deconcentration within metropolitan regions, means that it is difficult to be optimistic about prospects for producer services in the less favoured regions. The paper concludes with some suggestions for a more positive regional policy with respect to producer services.
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| [43] |
Producer services, trade and the social division of labor [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409012331346024 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract GOE W. R. (1990) Producer services, trade and the social division of labour, Reg. Studies 24, 327--342. Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the growth in employment and output of producer services industries in US metropolitan and regional economies. One hypothesis contends that this growth is attributable to the increasing externalization of service activities by corporate managerial offices to independent producer services firms. This has contributed to the growth of corporate complex agglomerations in urban regions. Manufacturing industries have traditionally been viewed as being the motivating force underlying this growth. A second hypothesis contends that the growth of producer services industries is attributable to their evolution into basic industries and the growth of export trade. This paper examines the validity of these hypotheses using data collected from a survey of business establishments in producer services industries located in the four metropolitan areas of the northeast region of Ohio (Cleveland, Akron, Canton and Youngstown/Warren). The findings indicate that the primary role of producer services industries in each metropolitan area is to provide their products of labour to other industries in the service sector rather than manufacturing. Additionally, producer services industries in each metropolitan area are characterized by a dual structure: (1) a larger tier of establishments that is primarily dependent upon local markets and linked into local corporate complex agglomerations; and (2) a smaller tier of establishments that is primarily dependent upon export markets and linked into the broader spatial division of labour. GOE W. R. (1990) Les services aux entreprises, les échanges commerciaux et la division sociale du travail, Reg. Studies 24, 327--342. Plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancés pour expliquer la croissance de l'emploi et de la production dans les services aux entreprises dans les économies métropolitaines et régionales aux Etats-Unis. Un hypothèse soutient que cette croissance s'explique par le fait que de plus en plus la direction des entreprises fait faire les activités de services par des prestataires indépendants. Cela a contributé à la croissance des agglomérations d'entreprises complexes dans les zones urbaines. L'explication re04ue c'est que les entreprises industrielles en sont le moteur. Un deuxième hypothèse prétend que l'essor des services aux entreprises est d04 à leur évolution dans les industries de base et à la croissance des exportations. L'article examine le bien-fondé de ces hypothèses à partir des données provenant d'une enquête des établissements commerciaux offrant des services aux entreprises et localisés dans les quatre zones métroploitaines au nord-est de Ohio (à savoir, Cleveland, Akron, Canton et Youngstown/Warren). Les résultats laissent voir que le r00le primordial des services aux entreprises dans chaque zone métropolitaine c'est de fournir leurs produits aux autres branches du secteur tertiaire plut00t qu'aux entreprises industrielles. En plus les services aux entreprises dans chaque zone métropolitaine se caractérisent par une structure dualiste: (1) un niveau d'établissements plus nombreux qui en premier dépend des marchés locaux et est relié aux agglomérations d'entreprises complexes; et (2) un niveau d'établissements moins nombreux qui dépend en premier des marchés d'exportation et est relié à la division spatiale du travail plus large. W. R. GOE (1990) Produzentendienstleistungen, Handel und die soziale Arbeitsteilung, Reg. Studies 24, 327--342. Es gibt mehrere Hypothesen zur Erkl01rung der Zunahme der Arbeitsstellen und des Umfangs der Produzentendienstlei-stungindustrien in den grosst01dtischen und regionalen Industrien der USA. Eine behauptet, das Wachstum sei der zunehmenden Aussenverlagerung von Dienstleistungst01tigkeiten von Unternehmensgesch01ftsstellen auf unabh01ngige Firmen für Produzentendienstleistungen zuzuschreiben. Dies hat zum Anwachsen von Unternehmenskomplexballungen in st01dtischen Gebieten beigetragen. Eine zweite Hypothese behauptet, das Anwachsen der Produzentendienstleistungsindustrien sei auf deren Entwicklung zu Rohstoffindustrien und die Zunahme des Exporthandels zurückzuführen. Dieser Aufsatz untersucht die Gültigkeit beider Hypothesen, wobei Daten einer Erhebung von Gesch01ftsniederlassungen in Produzentendienst-leistungsindustrien in den vier Grosstadtgebieten des Nordostens von Ohio (Cleveland, Akron, Canton und Youngtown/Warren) benutzt werden. Die Befunde deuten darauf hin, dass es die Hauptrolle der Produzentendienstlei-stungsindustrien in jedem Grosstadtgebiet ist, ihre Arbeitsprodukte vermehrt anderen Industrien im Dienstlei-stungssektor zur Verfügung zu stellen, als der herstellenden Industrie. Darüberhinaus sind Produzentendienstleistungs-industrien in jedem Grosstadtgebiet durch ihre Doppel-struktur gekennzeichnet: (1) eine gr02ssere Firmenschicht, die in erster Linie vom 02rtlichen Markt abh01ngt und mit 02rtlichen Unternehmenskomplexballungen verknüpft ist, und (2) eine kleinere, die in erster Linie von Exportm01rkten abh01ngt, und mit der breiteren r01umlichen Arbeitsteilung verknüpft ist.
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| [44] |
The producer services sector and development within the deindustrializing urban community [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/72.4.971 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT This article examines alternative models of producer services development in metro-politan communities and analyzes factors associated with the development of producer services in two deindustrializing urban communities the primary metropolitan statistical areas (PMSAs) of Cleveland and Akron, Ohio, Sample surveys of producer services in each metropolitan area reveal that establishments: (1) tend to be primarily dependent upon the revenue generated by local trade within the local metropolitan area; (2) tend to simultaneously engage in nonlocal trade and directly contribute to interurban integration and dominance of large metropolitan centers; and (3) engage most extensively in trade, both locally and nonlocally, with other service-sector industries, rather than manufacturing. These findings suggest that producer services development may be sustained in deindustrializing urban communities and that it is not primarily dependent upon trade with locally based manufacturing industry.
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| [45] |
The role of contact requirements in producer services location [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a3139 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The authors explore the role of contact requirements in the locationaltendencies of producer service establishments. Empirical evidence from two demand-side surveys suggests that close proximity between vendors and clients is required for contracts that involve frequent buyer - seller interaction (face-to-face linkages). These types of contracts are shown to be relatively low duration and/or low cost in nature. Specific activity classes that exhibit these characteristics include data processing, computer software development, product testing, and equipment repair services. In contrast, more advanced (and often more expensive) services such as management consulting and industrial design exhibit lower levels of contact sensitivity. The paper concludes with a discussion of forthcoming prospects for the development of a contact-based model of producer service location.
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| [46] |
A hierarchical change model of business and professional services in the United States [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.22.4.340 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Using County Business Patterns from 1977 to 1996, this study found that the location change in business and professional services, measured in relative terms, is organized around the hierarchy of metropolitan areas. Sectors in business and professional services showed different types of location changes during the study period because they are in different stages of a general hierarchical process. This process is conceptualized in a three-stage descriptive model. In the first stage, business and professional services centralize up the hierarchy. In the second stage, business and professional services begin to decentralize at the top while centralization is still going on at the bottom of the hierarchy. The last stage is a complete decentralization down the metropolitan hierarchy with the bottom of the hierarchy getting more and more shares of business and professional services. This model is an effort to fill in the gap in conceptualizing the location of intermediate services. [Key words: services, location change, hierarchical model, metropolitan areas.]
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The impact of 9/11 on the geography of financial services in New York: A few years later [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2011.603654 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
An economic census and a survey of seventy-nine firms revealed a changing geography of financial services after 11 September 2001. Although the suburbs benefited from the outward relocation of financial services from Manhattan immediately afterward, they lost considerably two years later, demonstrating the interdependence of the central city and its suburbs. Executives of financial services firms ranked highly locational attributes such as prestige, public transportation, and proximity to clients and other financial services before 11 September, but terrorism also emerged as a major locational factor after 11 September. The impact of terrorism and how it interacts with agglomeration economies, technological changes, and globalization to shape the geography of financial services is examined under the framework of quaternary place theory.
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Technology and international competitiveness: The interdependence between manufacturing and producer services [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2005.02.002 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper investigates how countries become specialised in exporting specific producer services, particularly financial, communication and business services. We find that a country's ability to develop a competitive service economy depends on the structure of its manufacturing sector as some manufacturing industries are more intensive users of these services. Moreover, we find a virtuous cycle as the same service producers are also intensive users of these producer services. Finally we find that information and communication technologies have a significant impact on trade performance of these producer services.
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Planning for the mega-city: A new eastern Asian urban form [M]// |
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The spatial distribution of producer services in Shanghai [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009102133 URL [本文引用: 3] 摘要
This paper examines the location characteristics of the newly emerged producer services in Shanghai. The research questions are: how does the location of producer services fit into Shanghai's spatial context? What are the factors shaping the spatial distribution pattern? Are the spatial distribution and its determinants similar to those observed in other cities? Analyses of data collected from field reconnaissance, interviews and secondary sources reveal that the spatial distribution of producer services in Shanghai is characterised by concentration and dispersion. The concentration of producer services in an extensive central-city core is similar to that observed in other cities. However, the wide spread of producer services over a fairly big region is unexpected. The paper adds insight to the study of producer services by contending that contextual factors such as an indigenous path of development, state intervention and market institution, determine the location of producer services in Shanghai.
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Do producer services induce regional economic development [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.1990.tb00115.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Goods production and services have become increasingly integrated within a flexible, information-oriented system of production organization. In this context, it is argued here that producer services–carried out both within manufacturing firms and by "independent" enterprises–play a pivotal role in expanding the division of labor, productivity, and per capita income. This proposition is supported by results of an empirical analysis of metropolitan areas in major U.S. regions and in the nation as a whole.
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Assessing the functional polycentricity of the mega-city region of central Belgium based on advanced producer service transaction links [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.759650 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Hanssens H., Derudder B., van Aelst S. and Witlox F. Assessing the functional polycentricity of the mega-city-region of Central Belgium based on advanced producer service transaction links, Regional Studies. This paper comments on three aspects of POLYNET's implementation of the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) model to measure functional polycentricity at the local scale. These aspects are: (1) the use of advanced producer services (APS) office locations as a proxy for inter-city relations, (2) the problematic calculation of the functional polycentricity index, and (3) the narrow conceptualization of functional polycentricity. Alternative methodologies based on transaction link data are introduced to examine whether Central Belgium displays features of a functionally polycentric mega-city-region. The results suggest that this is not the case: Central Belgium displays more features of a hierarchical urban system with Brussels as the dominant service city. However, some indications are found for a preliminary urban network formation.
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The urbanization and suburbanization of the service economy: Producer services and specialization in Stockholm [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2007.00260.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article highlights cities and urban regions as the focal point of the growth and geography of post-industrial and postmodern service activities. Based on an empirical study of Sweden's capital city region, it illustrates the presence of multiple patterns as far as the structure and geography of urban economic development are concerned. Using statistical data for all employees in Stockholm and its surrounding region in 1993 and 2002, the service sector workforce is analysed by industry (finance, producer services, IT services, media and amenities) and categorized according to levels of education, employment status (self-employed or employed) and workplace size. As prior research would lead us to expect, the results show the importance of Stockholm for the development of post-industrial and postmodern service activities in Sweden. For the investigated sectors, 54 per cent of the employees in Sweden are employed in the Stockholm region, compared with 20 per cent for all sectors. It also shows the importance of these sectors for the economic development of Stockholm. The employment growth in these sectors between 1993 and 2002 amounted to 50 per cent of the total employment growth in the Stockholm region over this period. Finally, and most importantly, the study identifies a variety of development paths, differentiated by sector, and by central, semi-peripheral and peripheral locations within the region.
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Connecting Rhine-Main: The production of multi-scalar polycentricities through knowledge-intensive business services [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400701874230 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Hoyler M., Freytag T. and Mager C. Connecting Rhine-Main: the production of multi-scalar polycentricities through knowledge-intensive business services, Regional Studies. Most of the literature on polycentric urban regions has focused on the analysis of intra-regional rather than external linkages, while research on the emergence of a ‘world city network’ has analysed external city relations without explicitly addressing city-regional contexts. This paper aims to bring both perspectives together. Drawing on Taylor's interlocking network model, it presents a first analysis of multi-scalar inter-city connectivities within a specific city-regional context. Central to the analysis is the question how knowledge-intensive business service firms in Rhine-Main connect this multi-nodal metropolitan region to other cities within Germany and beyond. The result is a detailed mapping of the business service connectivities of a major European city-region. Hoyler M., Freytag T. et Mager C. Région Rhin-Main et processus de mise en réseau: la production de polycentralité multiscalaire via les services de haut niveau, Regional Studies. La plupart des travaux de recherche sur les régions métropolitaines polycentriques ont jusqu'à présent surtout analysé le processus de formation et la structuration interne de la région métropolitaine mais ont peu traité des relations externes entres les p00les urbains. Des travaux récents sur l'émergence du réseau des villes mondiales ont certes étudié ce type de relations interurbaines mais sans prendre en compte de manière explicite l'espace métropolitain en tant que tel. Cet article propose de faire le lien entre les deux perspectives. En prenant appui sur le modèle des réseaux de Taylor, il présentera une analyse multiscalaire des relations interubaines concernant une région métropolitaine particulière: la région Rhin-Main. Le questionnement mettra en particulier l'accent sur le r00le des entreprises de services de haut niveau dans les relations entre la région métropolitaine multinodale et les autres villes d'Allemagne et d'ailleurs. Le travail donnera lieu à une cartographie détaillée des connectivités des services d'une grande région métropolitaine de l'Europe. Polycentricité69Région métropolitaine69Connectivité69Services de haut niveau69Rhin-Main Hoyler M., Freytag T. und Mager C. Rhein-Main vernetzt: Die Produktion multiskalarer Polyzentrizit01t durch wissensintensive Dienstleistungsunternehmen, Regional Studies. Forschungsarbeiten über polyzentrische Metropolregionen haben bislang zumeist intraregionale Strukturen und Prozesse untersucht und nur selten externe st01dtische Verflechtungen thematisiert. Dagegen analysieren neuere Forschungen zur Herausbildung eines globalen St01dtesystems interurbane Vernetzungen ohne den metropolitanen Raum als Kontext explizit zu berücksichtigen. Dieser Aufsatz verbindet beide Perspektiven. Unter Bezugnahme auf Taylors Netzwerkmodell wird eine erste Analyse interurbaner Verflechtungen für eine spezifische Metropolregion auf verschiedenen Ma08stabsebenen vorgenommen. Im Zentrum der Untersuchung steht die Frage, wie wissensintensive Dienstleistungsunternehmen das Rhein-Main Gebiet als multinodale Metropolregion an andere St01dte in Deutschland und darüber hinaus anbinden. Das Ergebnis ist eine detaillierte Kartierung der Dienstleistungsverflechtungen einer bedeutenden europ01ischen Metropolregion. Polyzentrizit01t69Metropolregion69Konnektivit01t69Wissensintensive Dienstleistungsunternehmen69Rhein-Main Hoyler M., Freytag T. y Mager C. Conectando la región Rin-Meno: la producción de policentralidades multiescalares a través de servicios comerciales con alto nivel de conocimientos, Regional Studies. La mayoría de literatura sobre las regiones urbanas policéntricas se ha ocupado principalmente de analizar los vínculos intrarregionales en vez de externos mientras que en la investigación sobre la aparición de una ‘red de ciudades mundiales’ se han analizado las relaciones externas entre las ciudades sin abordar explícitamente los contextos de regiones metropolitanas. En este artículo reunimos ambas perspectivas. Basándonos en el modelo de redes entrelazadas de Taylor, presentamos un primer análisis de conectividades multiescalares interurbanas dentro de un contexto específico de región metropolitana. El enfoque de este análisis es plantearnos cómo las empresas de servicios comerciales con alto nivel de conocimientos en la región Rin-Meno conectan esta región metropolitana multinodal a otras ciudades en Alemania y otros sitios. El resultado es una representación pormeronizada de las conectividades de servicios comerciales de una importante región metropolitana europea. Policentralidad69Región metropolitana69Conectividad69Servicios comerciales con alto nivel de conocimientos69Región Rin-Meno
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Services and urban development in the Asia-Pacific region: Institutional responses and policy innovation [M]. |
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Location, linkages, and labor: The downtown complex of corporate activities in a medium size city, Vancouver, British Columbia [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/144150 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recent research has identified the critical role of a complex of corporate activities in propelling the downtown and some metropolitan economies. Following the theoretical work of Gottmann and of Scott, two surveys of head offices and producer services in downtown Vancouver, British Columbia, show tight interdependencies between location, linkages, and labor. A downtown location usually implies membership in a dense network of business linkages, and the importance of these linkages dictate locational centrality within a vertically disintegrated economic complex. While the labor force is skilled, and with capital substitution becoming increasingly so, there is clear evidence of a dual labor market stratified by gender, though trends toward reskilling and equal opportunity employment are beginning to introduce changes at the margin.
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The service economy: A geographical approach [M]. |
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Knowledge-based clusters and urban location: The clustering of software consultancy in Oslo [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00420980410001675797 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The paper examines the reasons for the clustering of Norwegian software firms in Oslo. The analysis focuses on how software firms perform individual activities and how they interact with other players in performing the activities. The clustering of software firms in Oslo rests first of all on the need for very close interaction between consulting companies and important customers, and among software consulting companies themselves. The fact is that consulting activity is project-based and involves lots of coalition-building and face-to-face contact which is facilitated when players co-locate. Demand-side factors are important in explaining the concentration of software companies in Oslo, while important supply-side factors are the possibilities of meeting persons in other software firms and the gathering of information in formal and informal settings.
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Co-agglomeration of knowledge-intensive business services and multinational enterprises [J]. |
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Synergy and co-agglomeration of producer services and manufacturing: A panel data analysis of Chinese cities [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.756580 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Ke S., He M. and Yuan C. Synergy and co-agglomeration of producer services and manufacturing: a panel data analysis of Chinese cities, Regional Studies. This paper constructs a simultaneous equation model of co-agglomeration of producer services and manufacturing that highlights the synergy effects of the two sectors located in the same cities or neighbouring cities. It applies the fixed effects instrumental variable (FE IV) estimator to a panel dataset of 286 Chinese cities for the years 2003 2008. The FE IV spatial econometric estimates indicate that manufacturing industry tends to locate in the cities where producer services are located, and vice versa; a city's manufacturing (producer services) might relocate if producer services (manufacturing) agglomerated in the neighbouring cities; and agglomeration of each industry has spillover effects within its own industry across neighbouring cities.
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Why do business service firms cluster? Small consultancies, clustering and decentralization in London and southern England [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00042 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
Notwithstanding their remarkable recent growth, surprisingly little research has hitherto been conducted on the evolving geography of professional and business services in Britain. This paper analyses the results of a detailed survey of 300 small and medium-sized management and engineering consultancies, in investigating the forces underpinning both the striking clustering of such firms in central London and their growth in decentralized locations of East Anglia and South West England. Particular attention is paid to the notion of clustering, the role of demand-side influences, localized 'collective learning' processes, and increasing globalization in clustering, and to so-called 'enterprising behaviour theory' in explaining decentralization.
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This is not America: Embedding the cognitive-cultural urban economy [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0467.2010.00338.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The aim of this article is to broaden the epistemological basis for investigating the current shift to cognitive-cultural economies and the resurgence of cities and its socio-spatial articulation. The point of departure here is that the drivers of the structural changes are indeed more or less ubiquitous, but are played out in different national institutional and urban contexts resulting in potentially diverging cognitive-cultural economies. Four main drivers of change after 1980 are distinguished. The first is the rise of a new technological paradigm based on digital technology. The second is the thrust towards deregulation and privatization as planks of the neo-liberal political programme. The third is the intensification of all kinds of linkages between regions across the globe. The fourth driver constitutes the processes of individualization and increasing reflexivity that have fragmented consumer markets. By identifying distinct filters which might shape and mould the impact of these more general drivers on concrete urban areas, a comprehensive framework is presented that can be used to analyse and compare the trajectories of cities while linking them to a larger narrative of societal change. A central line of reasoning is that agglomeration economies 090009 pivotal in Allen Scott's analysis of the emergence of a cognitive-cultural economy 090009 are themselves embedded in concrete social and institutional contexts which impact on how they are played out. To make this point, we build upon Richard Whitley's business systems. Given this institutional diversity, we expect that various institutional contexts will generate different cognitive-cultural economies.
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The growth and structural change of Chinese cities: A contextual and geographic analysis [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-2751(02)00039-2 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recent theoretical attempts to understand the dynamics of urban change in North America have been made predominantly on the basis of either the “growth machine” model or urban regime analysis, both of which see the growth of cities as the result of the interplay among some internal urban-based actors for financial gains and fortune building. This study adopts an approach that moves beyond internalism and the growth deterministic interpretation of urban change, to analyzing the functional and spatial (re)positioning of cities as a system or systems in the broader context of regional growth and national development strategies. The city in China has functioned not simply as a body of assets and property but more as the center of economic and social transformation engineered by the state for both growth and non-growth considerations. Prior to the 1978 economic reforms, the system of cities created by the Maoist regime was dominated by large and extra-large cities because of the imperatives of optimum industrialization. For the strategic consideration of national defense, most of the new cities were developed in the central and western interior rather than the eastern coast. Market reforms and relaxation of state control over local development since the late 1970s have allowed a large number of small cities and towns to flourish on the basis of bottom-up rural transformative development. The intrusion of global market forces has helped re-consolidate the dominance of the eastern coast in China’s urban development. China’s urban development over the past five decades has been the direct outcome of national political strategizing, state articulation and reconfiguration, and shifts in global capital accumulation. A superimposed dual-track system of urban settlements integrating the Maoist legacy of large city dominance at the top with the rapidly expanding component of small cities and towns in the bottom is quickly taking shape to characterize China’s urban development and urbanization.
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Toward a post-socialist city? Economic tertiarization and urban transformation in the Guangzhou metropolis, China [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/1538-7216.45.1.18 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This study examines economic tertiarization and urban reformation in Guangzhou, one of the most rapidly changing Chinese metropolises, as a path-dependent process blending the city's distinct mercantile tradition with the operation of new market forces and globalization. More specifically, it investigates how interaction of the socialist legacy of industrialization with the new forces of marketization and globalization has given rise to a peculiar pattern of simultaneous industrialization and tertiarization differing from the Western norm of linear progression. The author argues that the emergence of the tertiary sector as a main source of employment and a powerful engine for reorganizing urban land use and transforming the urban economic landscape raises new theoretical questions requiring a conceptual departure from the previous industrial-deterministic paradigm of socialist urbanization. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L80, O18, R11. 5 figures, 8 tables, 88 references.
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The new geography of information and consulting services in China: Comparing Beijing and Guangzhou [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.03.001 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
This paper examines China's emerging geography of information and consulting services (ICS)—one of the most rapidly growing economic sectors in the national economy. China's ICS activities have taken place in recent years as the reformed state adapted to and articulated with the intrusion of global market forces. The analysis of the data at the national level has identified a distinct pattern characterized by a high concentration of the ICS industry in a few central metropolises. A further study of the growth and location of ICS activities at the national capital (Beijing) and a provincial capital (Guangzhou) has revealed a close and sophisticated relationship between the state and market forces that underlined the growth of ICS in different locales. The existing literature on the service economy can be enhanced by moving beyond the thesis of the Engle's law and the notion of localized production networks to take more seriously state–market relations as a key to understanding the growth and location of service activities in emerging economies such as China.
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The creation of competitive advantage by producer service firms [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.1999.tb00071.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
In this paper we focus on how competitive advantage is constructed by producer service businesses, how it varies among establishments with different characteristics, and how it affects establishment performance. Sources of competitive advantage stem from characteristics such as quality, price, creativity and innovation, flexibility, timeliness of delivery, and scope of services offered. We present a detailed evaluation of the competitive advantage model developed by Porter (1990) and review applications of this model to the producer services. We find this model to be partially successful in distinguishing between superior and inferior performance by producer service businesses, with important differences observed across age, organizational type, and size of business. We develop an expanded model of factors related to competitive advantage and performance, which includes not only factors contained in the Porter model, but dimensions particular to the information-oriented producer services, such as creativity, geographic proximity, R&D capabilities, and adaptability to client needs.
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Intra-firm and extra-firm linkages in the knowledge economy: The case of the emerging mega-city region of Munich [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2010.00277.x URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
With the aim of identifying emerging patterns of spatial development and the driving forces behind the associated process, in this article we draw together two threads of interlinked phenomena. First, we look at how multi-location firms from the knowledge economy develop their intra-firm networks internationally. Second, we establish the partners with which these firms have working relationships along individual chains of value, and in which these extra-firm linkages are located. We start from a conceptual background that combines the location behaviour of firms with a value chain approach. We analyse the two main pillars of the knowledge economy advanced producer services (APS) and high-tech firms. A case study carried out in the greater Munich area provides the empirical basis and draws on quantitative and qualitative research methods. The results provide evidence that the greater Munich area can be regarded simultaneously as a hierarchically organized polycentric mega-city region and high-grade localized system of value chains.
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Urban transformation in China, 1949-2000: A review and research agenda [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a34192 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Through a review of the literature, the author identifies the achievements as well as the deficiencies in the study of China's urbanization and urbanism in the second half of the 20th century. A number of issues that merit scholarly research are suggested and the need for theorization is emphasized. During the last half century, Chinese cities underwent dramatic transformations as a consequence of two major systemic changes. During the first three decades after the socialist revolution of 1949, sustained low levels of urbanization and a brief episode of antiurbanism accompanied centralized planning and city-based industrialization. Since the economic reforms of 1978 Chinese cities have witnessed major economic and spatial shifts away from the socialist patterns. Among the many facets of urban transformation since 1978 are a more heterogeneous urban population, rural - urban migration, spatial reorganization through urban land-use change, new housing development, globalization, suburbanization, polycentric restructuring of urban form, and changes in the spatial/administrative systems of cities. It is argued that, as the Chinese economy is inherently political, political economy perspectives should be foregrounded to enrich our understanding of the complexity of China's economic and urban transformation. In this regard, the continuously powerful and multiple roles of the Party-state as the ultimate decisionmaker, regulator, and participant in the urban economy should be emphasized, despite globalization and decentralization of administrative and fiscal powers from the central to local levels. The Chinese trajectory of urban development is seen as more different from than similar to the experiences of other economies undergoing structural change away from socialism, and context-based country-specific theorization of urban change is called for. More general theories of urban transformation which are applicable to a number of former socialist nations, and which transcend the idiosyncrasies of individual countries, should be developed where possible. A closer engagement among scholars working on the urban development of China and those working on other former socialist countries is necessary if 'the socialist city' is to become a firm typology of cities.
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Restructuring the Chinese city: Diverse processes and reconstituted spaces [M]// |
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The role of producer service outsourcing in the innovation performance of New York State manufacturing firms [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/0004-5608.00041 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper assesses the contribution of external technical services to the innovation initiatives of New York State manufacturing firms. The results of a spatially and sectorally stratified postal survey of more than 400 manufacturing firms are presented. A major finding of the paper is that specialized technical services can support the product development efforts of innovative firms. The empirical results also point to significant spatial variations in technical service utilization. Some of these variations reflect different supply and accessibility conditions among the state's major regions and urban centers. The survey results are discussed in the context of recent empirical and theoretical findings on the role of producer services in urban and regional development. Particular attention is given to the empirical connection between producer service accessibility and industrial innovation.
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The decentralization of Airbus production and services [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060701207056 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Airbus has been multisourcing production since the first rollouts in the late 1970s, spawning clusters of suppliers around its locations in Bristol, Hamburg, Madrid and Toulouse. Moreover, both the A380 project and globalisation of the aircraft market pointed up the need and value of outsourcing. This paper analyses the outlook for supplier clusters in Toulouse and elsewhere based on Airbus thinking and practices before identifying the ingredients of successful outsourcing.
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Locational behavior of French hi-tech consultancy firms [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.1991.tb00680.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
First page of article
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Information technology consultancy firms: Economies of agglomeration from a wide-area perspective [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/00420989550013248 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
'Agglomeration economies' remains a powerful concept in spatial analysis. However, in order to keep its full relevance for contemporary urban and regional systems, it must be completed in two ways. First of all, its qualitative nature, consisting of specific and general assets offered by the urban agglomeration, should be used to enrich the notion of economic externalities. Secondly, agglomeration economies must be considered as the external economies generated by urban agglomerations belonging to different wide-area networks linking high-level urban centres with each other. From this point of view, economies of scale and scope are achieved by multi-locational, knowledge-intensive firms whose functional and spatial organisation is based on the application of principles as: professional collaboration in loosely coupled networks, horizontal communication, optimisation of 'economies of overview', global marketing for locally managed niche markets. This functional and spatial organisation is illustrated for global information technology consultancy (ITC) firms. The spatial logic in the functional division of labour of such firms is strongly influenced by market forces at the level of large agglomerations, which are locations of headquarters of large client firms. But at the same time, this logic also follows the specific structuring principles of internal or support functions of the firms, i.e. R&D, technology and methodology, marketing and internal training. Different types of ITC firm show a variety of forms in their spatial organisation. This is due to the place of ITC in their overall activities, their professional origin (accountancy, organisation and management consulting, systems development, computer and communication hardware production) and the spatial reach of their markets. Still, the spatial organisation of these firms follows the logic of economic externalities offered by top-tier urban agglomerations integrated in wide-area networks. Market expansion happens via globalisation and the creation of new niche markets by existing consulting offices, rather than by the establishment of new offices in lower-tier urban centres.
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The role of transnational corporation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-9006(95)96163-L URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This report examines the relationship within urban housing markets between residential mobility and housing opportunity, The basic unit of analysis is neither households nor housing units but rather vacant housing opportunities. Objectives are three-fold, The first is to clarify concepts about opportunity and mobility within housing markets. Clarification begins with the observation that mobility is limited to a set of currently vacant housing opportunities, continues through reasons for the existence of opportunity differentials and proceeds toward the development of historically and structurally based theories of intraurban residential mobility. The second objective is to define the mathematical structure of a pair of multisectoral residential vacancy chain models that operationalise these concepts. These models simulate the transfer of vacant housing opportunities among housing sectors in response to either the creation of new opportunities or the absorption of existing ones. Residential mobility is given as an analytical by-product. The third objective is to calibrate these models and gauge the accuracy of their projections. The accuracy of these models exceeds that of any known alternative. Vacancy transfer models are shown to be useful in housing programme assessment, in the assessment of regional housing needs and in the design of local housing programs. Their core matrices are useful in tracing chains of opportunities among housing sectors, in determining whether opportunities filter down to those who cannot afford newly constructed units and in defining the ways in which in-migrants and newly formed household support residential mobility among existing residents.
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The role of producer services in regional development: What opportunities for medium-sized cities in Belgium [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/0264206042000305420 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The presence or absence of producer services in a region is supposed to influence regional development. Nevertheless, the way in which these activities contribute to regional development is still very imperfectly understood. This article is a combined theoretical–empirical analysis of four of these mechanisms: the employment effect, the exportation effect, the productivity–competitivity effect and the attraction effect.
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The economic transformation of American cities [M]. |
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Agglomeration in the global economy: A survey of the "new economic geography" [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9701.00160 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This review of recent contributions reveals common conclusions about the effects of integration on location. For high trade costs the need to supply markets locally encourages firms to spread across different regions. Integration weakens the incentives for self-sufficiency and for intermediate values of trade costs pecuniary externalities induce firms and workers to cluster together, turning location into a self-reinforcing process. Agglomeration raises the price of immobile local factors and goods, however, so for low transport costs, firms may spread to regions where those prices are lower.
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Service-led growth: The role of the service sector in world development [M]. |
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Successful industrial innovation: Critical factors for the 1990s [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.1992.tb00812.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Not only is technology changing rapidly, but the process of the commercialisation of technological change—the industrial innovation process—is changing also. The paper traces developments in the dominant perceived model of industrial innovation from the simple linear 'technology push' and 'need pull' models of the 1960s and early 1970s, through the 'coupling model' of the late 1970s to early 1980s, to the 'integrated' model of today. The latter (the 4th Generation innovation process) marked a shift from perceptions of innovation as a strictly sequential process to innovation perceived as a largely parallel process. This shift owed much to observations of innovation processes in leading Japanese corporations. Recent developments indicate the possibilities attainable in the proposed 'strategic integration and networking' model, elements of which are already in place. According to this 5th generation model, innovation is becoming faster; it increasingly involves inter-company networking; and it employs a new electronic toolkit (expert systems and simulation modelling).
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Specification of the world city network [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.2001.tb00443.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
World cities are generally deemed to form an urban system or city network but these are never explicitly specified in the literature. In this paper the world city network is identified as an unusual form of network with three levels of structure: cities as the nodes, the world economy as the supranodal network level, and advanced producer service firms forming a critical subnodal level. The latter create an interlocking network through their global location strategies for placing offices. Hence, it is the advanced producer service firms operating through cities who are the prime actors in world city network formation. This process is formally specified in terms of four intercity relational matrices elemental, proportional, distance, and asymmetric. Through this specification it becomes possible to apply standard techniques of network analysis to world cities for the first time. In a short conclusion the relevance of this world city network specification for both theory and policy-practice is briefly discussed.
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World city network: A global urban analysis [M]. |
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Some social and spatial aspects of services [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/d050005 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Five related issues involved in the analysis of services are discussed. First, it is shown that it is incorrect to suggest that there is a single route to the contemporary economy with high employment in the service sector. The Fisher-Clark thesis is discussed and criticised. In the specific case of the United Kingdom it is shown that service industries were of considerable importance even during the supposed heyday of Victorian manufacturing industry. This is shown by analysing certain regional indicators. It is further suggested that the crucial role of especially financial services cannot be understood separately from the broader Makler or middleman economy which in part predated the extensive growth of manufacturing industry. Second, some of the recent arguments of Gershuny and Miles are analysed. It is shown that their formulations are insufficiently social, both in the sense of ignoring changes in the social relations underpinning capitalist production both of manufacturing and of service industries, and of neglecting the impact of 'social struggles' on the forms and levels of service employment. Third, a number of criteria are discussed by which different service industries can be separated off from each other. The criteria considered are ownership, market, product, degree of 'commodification', function, and character of the exchange. A classification based on elements of each of these is proposed in order to deal with UK data sources. Fourth, analysis is developed of eleven different forms of service sector restructuring. Some consideration is paid to the problems of explaining which of these will be found in particular sectors. Particular attention is devoted to considering the degree of importance of the 'labour' factor. Last, some of the processes affecting the 'private consumer services' concerned with tourism are analysed. In particular, attention is devoted to aspects of the physical and social setting within which the service delivery takes place. An attempt is made to demonstrate which particular forms of service sector restructuring will be found in those tourist services in British coastal resorts. The exceptionally complex nature of the forces affecting employment levels in such places is shown in some detail.
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The service sector in the Chinese economy: A geographic appraisal [J].https://doi.org/10.2747/1539-7216.50.3.275 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A U.S.-based economic geographer and observer of China's economy examines the rapid expansion of the country's largely overlooked service sector, at both the national and regional levels. A particular focus of the author's research is on identifying regional variations in the development of services within the country and exploring some of the more important contributing factors. Based on the findings, the paper also discusses structural shifts that occurred in China's regional economies, disclosing inter alia that inequality in the contribution of services to GDP did not follow the same trajectory as that of employment in services. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: L800, O180, P230. 6 figures, 4 tables, 82 references.
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Spatial proximity and location dynamics of knowledge-intensive business service in the Pearl River Delta, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.041 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Western studies on location dynamics of knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) suggest that KIBS firms tend to locate proximally to multinational enterprises and already established KIBS firms. This paper examines the location dynamics of KIBS firms in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) of China, one of the manufacturing centers and fastest-growing global mega-city regions in the world. This study reveals that KIBS in the PRD have become more spatially concentrated from 2004 to 2008. Both state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and foreign-owned enterprises (FOEs), two dominant players in the regional economy, play a positive role in attracting KIBS-births. This indicates that the presence of SOEs and FOEs has significantly shaped the location patterns of KIBS firms in the PRD, and the influence of SOEs is even stronger than that of the FOEs. Moreover, the new KIBS firms tend to co-locate with existing KIBS firms, which confirms that the cumulative causation mechanism matters in new KIBS firm formation process in the PRD. Other contextual factors, such as the state-governed developing zones (DZs), also have positive effects on KIBS-births. These findings suggest that more attention should be paid to the role of the state in restructuring the economic landscape of China where a mature market economy system is still lacking, although there are increasing signs of the influence of global firms.
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Business services, the management of change and regional development in the UK: A corporate client perspective [J].https://doi.org/10.2307/622392 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The expansion of business services in the UK since 1981 is reviewed in relation to general patterns of corporate management control. The results of a survey of strategic expertise exchange between consultancies and managers of major companies are presented. Consultancies are employed most by large, growing, decentralized service corporations in southern England and by those already experienced in change management. The reasons for the employment of different types of consultancy in corporate change are also examined. Clients emphasize their control over consultancies but are also increasingly dependent on them. Consultancy growth marks a developing social division of ' lite' management labour which has significance for rates of economic restructuring and the continuing focusing of control functions in southern England
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A service-informed approach to regional innovation—or adaptation [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060500092063 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This article explores the implications of a ‘service-informed’ understanding of economic growth and restructuring for regional analysis and policies. As well as growing tradability, the more fundamental role of service functions is to support other activities with specialist expertise. ‘Service’ qualities are also keys to innovativeness, including interactivity, market awareness and intangible qualities such as trust. These qualities remain outside technology-focused economic modelling and monitoring. The ‘new economy’ debate is contrasted with recent theoretical insights into service-based innovation. Innovation studies need to be broadened to encompass wider issues of economic adaptability, largely determined by service relationships. The growth of knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) reflects wider regional differences in the corporate, SME and public sector nexus of knowledge-based service functions. Regional competitiveness is thus favoured more by the diversity of global urban regions than the technologies within regional innovation systems. A service-informed perspective should emphasise the full knowledge base required for regional adaptability.
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State, market and the growth of service industries in metropolitan Guangzhou [M]// |
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Spatial development of producer services in the Chinese urban system [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a45106 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The Chinese economy has transformed from the development of industries in the early economic reform period of the 1980s to the development of service industries in the 2000s and, more recently, the emergence of producer service industries. Producer services have become increasingly important to the Chinese economy. Most studies on producer services in China mainly focus on individual cities. Spatial development of producer services at the regional and national levels is relatively less examined. In this paper we analyze the growth and location of producer services in the Chinese urban system. The study also shows that producer services are becoming spatially more concentrated across the urban system. As producer services that are important in generating economic development are more likely to be located in large metropolitan areas, they tend to reinforce the competitiveness of large cities. Moreover, the uneven spatial development of producer services suggests that small and medium cities need to conduct careful market studies and analyses on their ability to attract producer service industries before they initiate large central business district development projects and invest in massive construction of offices.
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Economic transition and urban transformation of China: The interplay of the state and the market [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098015597110 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Producer service linkages and city connectivity in the mega-city region of China: A case study of the Pearl River Delta [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098014544762 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper examines the intra- and inter-firm producer service linkages and city connectivity of the Pearl River Delta (PRD), one of the fastest growing and globalising mega-city regions in China. The study reveals that the rapid growth of producer services in the recent two decades has emerged as a crucial contributor to the formation of the regional network that was previously shaped mainly by manufacturing activities. To provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of mega-city regions, a nexus between the literature on globalisation and mega-city regions and the studies on the service economy must be developed to consider not only intra-firm office connections, but also the linkages of producer services between different firms and economic sectors. Through a questionnaire survey covering 1020 producer service firms in three major PRD cities, we provide evidence that in a manner different from manufacturing activities, producer services linkages, both intra-firm and inter-firm, bind the cities into a hierarchical and localised regional system
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Will rural urbanization produce a new producer service space in China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.07.004 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The spatial relationship between manufacturing and producer services is being significantly weakened in advanced economies because of the decline of manufacturing industries. However, as upstream–downstream industries, manufacturing and producer services have incentives to locate in proximity to each other. In developing countries, such as China, where manufacturing is still an important component of the economy, the evolution of the manufacturing–services relationship and its link to the distribution of producer services have remained unclear. After the economic reforms in 1978, China has experienced a distinctive process of rural industrialization and town development. Will a new producer service space, which is different from that of developed and other developing countries, be produced in China given its development of rural industries? We examine this question by using Guangdong Province, one of China's manufacturing bases and representative regions of rural industrialization, as a case study. Our findings suggest that despite their close input–output linkage, manufacturing and producer services are less likely to co-locate. The development of rural industries has not reduced the importance of large cities and city centers in producer service development. The accelerated economic globalization, the rapid growth of the service sector, and the low-end nature of rural industries have made the manufacturing–services linkage less crucial in determining the location of producer services.
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Intraurban location of producer service in Guangzhou, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a42460 URL [本文引用: 2] 摘要
The location of producer services has significant implications on the restructuring of the urban landscape. It is well documented that the growth of producer services in advanced economies has tended to be highly concentrated in the city proper, while at the same time demonstrating a prevailing tendency toward decentralization in recent years because of the development of information and communication technology. Producer services have been growing rapidly in urban China over the past decade. They have created new and remarkable changes in ostsocialist cities . This study analyzes the intraurban location of information and consulting services in Guangzhou, China. The findings suggest that the distribution pattern of producer services has gradually changed from dispersed to centripetal development towards the new business district. This is in stark contrast with the situation in Western cities. In Ghangzhou, urban land reform, city planning, and the need for producer services to gain more prestige and business linkages have together shaped new location dynamics for producer services. There has been a transformation from the once dispersed pattern into one that is more concentrated.
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Transforming China: Economic reform and its political implications [M]. |
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