地理科学进展  2018 , 37 (6): 739-749 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2018.06.001

地理新青年

地方创业与产业集群互动关系的研究进展与展望

符文颖

华南师范大学地理科学学院,广州 510631

Research progress and prospect on the relationship between industrial clusters and local entrepreneurship

FU Wenying

School of Geography, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China

收稿日期: 2018-04-13

修回日期:  2018-06-21

网络出版日期:  2018-06-28

版权声明:  2018 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目(41301109)

作者简介:

作者简介:符文颖(1984-),女,汉族,海南海口人,博士,副教授,硕导,研究方向为产业集群与区域创新,E-mail: fuwenying@m.scnu.edu.cn

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摘要

本文依托国家自然科学基金青年项目“基于地方创业视角的产业集群转型机制研究——以珠江三角洲为例”,采用个人—组织—外部环境交互反馈的分析框架,从产业集群促进地方创业产生和发展的环境,以及地方创业主体战略促进集群转型两个方面,梳理现有关于地方创业与集群发展的互动关系的成果。主要研究成果为:就地方创业的孵化而言,集群内成功创业家正面的示范效应是促进创业意愿产生的主要因素,而个人在集群内商业网络的社会根植程度能促进潜在创业家对原所在集群的区位偏好,从而促进创业活动的本地化发展。就地方创业的成长而言,应该关注集群内组织生态结构和创业生态系统环境,以及新创企业成立后与本地母体企业的动态组织联系。同时,地方创业主体也是产业集群的积极塑造者。以珠江三角洲为例的研究表明,在核心城市(广州)的成熟集群内,新一代创业企业通过自主区位选择可以改变集群的空间形态和层次;而在边缘城市(揭阳),本地企业的制度创业行为是集群升级的重要途径,本地创业家通过多地理尺度的认同反馈战略,吸引外部资源并构建跨地方的合作网络。最后对地方创业与产业集群互动关系的研究内容和方法进行展望。

关键词: 地方创业 ; 产业集群 ; 集群生态 ; 主体能动性 ; 进展

Abstract

Drawing from the key research results of the National Natural Science Foundation supported youth project "Study on industrial cluster restructuring mechanism from the perspective of local entrepreneurship—Case study in the Pearl River Delta, China" (No. 41301109), this article summarizes the literature and research results on the interacting relationships between local entrepreneurship and industrial clusters. It focuses on two aspects—the cluster environment that facilitates the emergence and growth of local entrepreneurship, and the agency and strategies of local entrepreneurs in industrial cluster restructuring. The primary research results are as follows. First, successful entrepreneurs in the clusters enhance the entrepreneurial intentions of others. Also, the embeddedness in personal relations with suppliers and customers has proven to exert significant impact on the locational preferences toward the clusters of origin, thus driving the localization of entrepreneurial activities. Second, cluster ecology and entrepreneurial ecosystem should become the focal point of study on the growth of entrepreneurial activities. The dynamic organizational relations with the parent companies are also important for the growth of spin-offs in the clusters. Meanwhile, local entrepreneurs active make and shape the clusters. In the mature industrial cluster in the core city of Guangzhou of the case study area—the Pearl River Delta, it is found that the new-generation start-ups could influence the spatial evolution of industrial cluster by their locational choice behaviors. In the periphery city, Jieyang, the institutional entrepreneurship carried out by the local entrepreneurs is an important way to upgrade and restructure the traditional industries. The interscalar strategies are applied by the local entrepreneurs to build up global pipelines, by which the resources and networks at different spatial scales are flexibly converged and leveraged. At the end of the article, future prospects with regard to the interacting relationship between local entrepreneurship and industrial cluster, both in terms of research context and methodology, has been discussed.

Keywords: local entrepreneurship ; industrial cluster ; cluster ecology ; agency ; progress

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符文颖. 地方创业与产业集群互动关系的研究进展与展望[J]. 地理科学进展, 2018, 37(6): 739-749 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2018.06.001

FU Wenying. Research progress and prospect on the relationship between industrial clusters and local entrepreneurship[J]. Progress in Geography, 2018, 37(6): 739-749 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2018.06.001

1 引言

创业家是经济系统“破坏性创造”的主导者(Schumpeter, 1934)。新企业的创立和绩效既受到集群环境的影响,反过来又能够不断改变产业集群内的生产边界和网络性质。可以说,创业精神以及创业企业的成长和绩效是集群发展的中坚力量。世界各地的产业集群,如美国硅谷、德国慕尼黑、英国剑桥以及北京中关村,都印证了创业家对于保持集群竞争力的重要作用。实际上,不论政府如何大力推动和支持集群发展,抑或是进驻的跨国企业具有多么强大的市场和技术研发能力,如果政策或者外商投资没有能够成功引发创新性的地方创业行为,都难以长远持续地促成产业集群的成功。

Feldman等(2005)首次将创业活动称为区域现象开始,越来越多的经济地理学者关注中宏观层面的区域产业结构和地方环境对创业活动的影响。其中,产业集群被认为是有效地促进创业产生和发展的地方产业组织空间(Rocha et al, 2005; Delgado et al, 2010; Weterings et al, 2015)。符文颖(2016)将地方创业定义为“在区域条件的驱动下发生和发展,并反过来影响区域经济发展的现象,也是创业家在地方尺度上以社会网络的方式集体进行技术创新和制度创新的能动性实践过程”,该定义整合了目前地方创业相关的文献,综合辩证地看待地方发展与创业活动之间相互促进的内在关联。在其总结的地方创业的三大特征中,与产业集群的联系主要体现在三个方面:首先创业活动的产生和发展依赖于集群地方化经济所提供的商业网络和知识溢出;其次创业活动的发展(特别是企业衍生)能塑造本地产业集群,并进一步通过企业网络促进集群知识溢出机制的形成;最后新创企业主要来自于本地企业和机构的衍生,因此创业资源和网络具有地方根植性,这种网络根植使得集群得以超越简单的产业集聚,并通过创业家及其网络的能动性实践,形成产业集群转型和变革的内在动力。

总的来说,地方创业与产业集群是相互依赖和促进的两个空间经济过程,企业衍生创造了产业集群,随着关键群体的形成,集群发展成熟,本地化经济又促进了地方创业的产生和发展,而在集群面临转型的阶段,地方创业又呈现出创业家与集群内其他主体之间关系网络的制度—权力实践过程,从而提高集群弹性,并促进集群转型和更新。也就是说,创业家在地方的成长路径除了受到产业集群结构性因素的限定和影响之外,创业家自身也能够凭借创业冒险精神和主体能动性,应用战略重塑地方环境,由此反馈到自身的创业活动中。可见,采用个人—组织—外部环境交互反馈的分析框架,有助于认识地方创业活动中创业主体与集群发展的互动关系。国家自然科学基金委员会青年基金项目“基于地方创业视角的产业集群转型机制研究——以珠江三角洲为例”即在此背景下提出。从理论上讲,研究有助于从微观作用机制层面完善当前产业集群的发展理论,在中国特定的转型体制下揭示中宏观尺度的集群结构和制度框架与微观尺度上地方创业主体实践之间的动态关系,以期弥补国际经济地理学对于转型经济的微观个体行为研究的不足。本文将从地方创业孵化和成长的集群环境,以及地方创业主体战略促进集群转型两个方面,回顾项目成果,结合对当前国内外研究进展的梳理总结,阐述项目的主要研究贡献,最后对地方创业与产业集群互动关系的研究进行展望,以期在“大众创业,万众创新”的政策背景下,认识地方创业主体的集群环境诉求和能动性空间战略,从而真正实现通过创业带动经济资源的空间优化和重组。

2 地方创业产生和发展的集群环境

现有的创业研究已广泛认可多尺度的分析框架,认为创业活动不仅受到微观主体,如个人创业特质和新创企业惯例的影响,也受到中宏观尺度环境的约束。创业决策受到其所处环境的影响,并且区域因素和地方环境相对于国家因素来说,影响更为突出(Feldman et al, 2005)。地理学在20世纪90年代末期兴起的新区域主义,认为区域——特别是城市化区域——在经济和社会生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色,是获取知识竞争优势的关系网络载体,强调城市和区域作为基本地理空间单元的社会和制度属性(Storper, 1997; 苗长虹, 2005)。在新区域主义思潮的影响下,从21世纪初开始,地理学者开始聚焦地方和集群环境是如何影响创业活动的产生和发展的。

2.1 地方创业产生的集群环境

在中宏观层面,区域创业文献认为新企业的成立受到区域和地方环境的影响(Sternberg, 2015),特别是在城市产业层面的地方化经济是形成积极的创业态度和氛围的基本条件(Sternberg et al, 2004)。然而也有研究指出,由于本地竞争激烈所引起的地方不经济也可能抑制创业活动的产生(Delgado et al, 2010)。关于集群对地方创业产生作用的文献争论主要有两方面的原因。第一,将集群与集聚的概念混淆,没有突出集群的网络经济特点。与简单的产业集聚不同的是,成熟的产业集群具有互补的经济活动及根植于本地制度的商业合作网络(贺灿飞等, 2007)。Rocha等(2005)以企业和组织网络区分集群和集聚,在此基础上对德国区域进行划分界定,发现集群能够促进创业但集聚不能。通过网络关系获得的知识和信息是潜在创业家识别创业机会的重要途径(Acs et al, 2013),另外不同创业家群体对集群环境的网络根植差异也会影响到催生的创业类型。第二,目前与创业相关的集群文献缺乏对萌芽阶段的潜在创业者的聚焦,没有具体区分产业集群的创业培育以及创业本地化机制。这个区分非常重要,因为产业集群可能孵化培育潜在创业家,但潜在创业家在个人根植程度的基础上,评估集群优势和劣势(如激烈的企业竞争)后,可能会离开其孵化集群创立企业。如果混淆了集群的创业培育机制(激发创业意愿)和创业巩固机制(留住新创企业),将会影响对集群的创业孵化机制的理解。

可见,应更深入地剖析不同的集群要素对不同创业阶段,包括潜在创业决策和潜在创业区位选择的影响。Fu(2016)从微观层面出发,基于Dahl等(2009)所提出的根植型创业家的概念视角,探讨个人在特定产业集群环境中的根植性如何培育其创业意愿,并影响其创业区位偏好,从而揭示地方创业发展的集群驱动机制。该研究将产业集群内的创业活动看做一个从培育到定居的渐进过程,以发展成熟的软件产业集群广州天河软件园为案例地,考察个人的集群根植性及其与创业意愿发展的关系。通过对广州天河软件园员工的抽样调查,共收集园内119家软件企业307个员工的有效问卷。问卷设置了两个主要观察变量:员工创业意愿和创业区位偏好,并在理论假设的基础上设置了六个衡量集群根植程度的变量,即对园区内创业成功例子的了解程度、与园区内创业支持机构的联系程度、与园区内顾客和供应商的个人联系程度、与园区内其他企业员工的交流程度、与园区内大学的技术交流程度以及在园区内获取相关产业信息程度。

就集群创业培育机制(激发创业意愿)而言,该研究结果表明,创业成功的正面示范效应是集群促进创业意愿产生的主要因素,说明集群内对创业活动的社会认同是促进集群发展的良性机制。近年来创业研究越来越多关注社会影响和行为榜样的作用,创业活动的区域分异被看作是行为榜样空间分布和社会环境分异的结果(Bosma et al, 2012)。地理邻近的成功创业家不仅会促进创业机会的识别,也会给成立新企业带来精神上的支持,即是一种“如果他/她能行,为什么我不能?”的合理化心理过程(Lafuente et al, 2007)。而在中国转型经济体的发展背景下,创业精神生产的社会土壤先天不足(Kshetri, 2009),这种行为榜样所赋予的认知合理性就显得尤为重要。当然,何种创业行为被视为是合理的具有地方和区域差异,这取决于地方社区的社会规范和价值取向。只有对创业认可度高且具有容败文化的区域中,观察了解周边的创业案例才能降低创业活动失败的恐惧(Kibler al, 2014),在集群内形成积极正面的创业文化氛围,进而提高区域的整体创业率。

另一方面,在集群培育创业意愿方面,西方文献的创业知识溢出理论(KSTE)所提到的大学和相关知识生产机构对邻近地区的创业促进效应(Audretsch et al, 2005; Acs et al, 2013),在中国情境的实证研究中没有显现(Fu, 2016)。根据知识溢出理论,创业机会来源于公共研究机构或者现有企业内部未能完全商业化的知识投资。Acs等(2013)表明,创业活动高度依赖于与知识来源的空间邻近性。从根植性的角度来看,个体成为潜在创业家的可能则取决于其与集群内知识生产机构的社会性互动(Fritsch et al, 2013)。然而,中国的大学更多的与大型成熟企业合作,这在很大程度上阻断了科技知识到商业知识的机构传导机制。该结果也说明了个人和组织对集群环境和资源的利用是存在差异的,验证了“根植性创业家”概念对研究集群和创业群体互动关系的适用性。因为某种特定的集群结构和组织——如以大型企业为主导的等级性突出的产业集群组织——可能对成熟企业有利,但另一方面又会阻碍潜在创业家与集群环境的根植与互动,从而抑制集群内新创企业的产生和发展。

就集群创业巩固机制(留住新创企业)而言,对创业区位偏好的分析表明创业区位选择在省域尺度上仍具有较大的空间粘滞性,并且个人在集群内商业网络的社会根植程度能促进潜在创业家对原所在集群的区位偏好,从而促进创业活动的本地化发展。也就是说,传统马歇尔的集聚经济虽然在创业意愿形成阶段不起主要作用,但在创业区位选择阶段是主导因素。产业集聚区内大量中小型供应商的存在,可降低新企业进入的门槛和初始阶段运营的成本,从而提高新企业的成立率(Glaeser et al, 2009)。另一方面,创业家们在本地的工作经历所建立起来的同事网络以及供应商和客户网络,使其在新创期可以获得一定的商业信用和发展资源,得以生存和发展(Rocha et al, 2005; Delgado et al, 2010)。Vicente等(2007)认为地方经济主体之间广泛的网络关系可以保证集群发展的稳定性,Fu(2016)就商业网络对潜在创业家的区位效应印证了这一观点。

2.2 地方创业发展的集群环境

集群环境不仅可以催生潜在创业意愿和促进新创企业的建立,也可支撑新创企业持续成长和发展。随着近几年对创业个体活动环境的高度关注,以往强调企业的产业集群、产业区和区域创新系统概念已经开始逐渐演化发展,在高技术产业集群的基础上形成区域创业生态系统的新理论体系(Neck et al, 2004; Stam, 2015)。实际上在波特发展产业集群理论的同时,已经注意到了影响企业竞争力的产业生态因素(Esty et al, 1998)。区域创业系统高度聚焦在具有特定时空背景的区域和城市环境,及其对新创企业和创业个体知识生产和成长的系统性影响(Henrekson et al, 2014)。

Stam(2015)在对创业生态系统文献回顾基础上,进一步总结了创业生态系统构成包括框架性条件和系统性条件,其中框架性条件指的是促进或者限制人们互动的社会和物理条件,包括正式制度、创业文化、物理基础设施以及需求。这四个框架条件的尺度既可以是区域层面的,也可以是国家层面的。特别是需求因素与以往集群概念强调的本地市场效应不同,更突出了集群所在区域的外部地位及其影响下的市场进入性。系统性条件则更多的体现在区域和本地层面上,包括创业家网络、领导者、金融、人才、新知识生产和支持服务。创业家网络提供了信息流动,促成劳动力和资本的有效分配。领导者则为生态系统提供发展方向和示范效应,此外还包括由具备创业知识的主体提供的融资,多样化的高技能人才供给,由公共和私有部门生产的新知识,以及各种中介机构提供的支持服务。而网络、人才、新知识生产和支持服务实际上也是以往高新技术集群所强调的因素,突出了缩减技术创新到市场转化时间的集群环境特点(Zhang et al, 2010)。

Qian(2018)则针对性的提炼了五个影响技术型新创企业的区域创业生态系统要素,即知识基础、竞争、网络、多样性和文化。其中知识基础反映了区域主导产业知识类型(即主导的产业集群类型)及其产生的创业机会对本地创业发展的影响;竞争反映了集群内相似企业的同行压力所造成的创新倒逼,以及集群内成熟大型企业和新创企业之间在技术创新和商业化上的竞合关系;网络则强调的是区域内创业家(或者潜在创业家)以及对创业家提供各种支持的人员之间的非正式社会网络;多样性包括产业的相关多样性和居民的人口社会属性多样性;文化则泛指可以促进创新创业发展的合作、开放、信任的氛围和社会资本。由此可见,创业生态系统相对于传统集群理论更强调集群内组织生态结构。Sorenson(2017)指出,中小型年轻企业比例的升高能带来的自我良性循环结果。区域内中小型年轻企业的数量多,可以保证大部分的人具有在新创的中小企业内工作的经历,可以在此积累创业所需的技术和商业知识(Lazear, 2005),并且在中小企业内工作到一定年限,创业便成为一个自然而然的职业发展选择。另外,中小型年轻企业较多的区域,创业资源——包括想法、知识产权、劳动力、供应商和办公空间——能够避免集结和固化在大型企业,并较快的释放到区域内,以让其他创业家发掘新的经济机会,同时也能形成完善的支撑创业初期的专业服务,降低创业成本(Kenney et al, 2005)。

在前沿的集群演化研究中,起源于管理学的组织复制理论也正成为一个新的分析视角,其认为经过市场和技术选择的成功企业不断衍生出遗传其部分能力的企业,由于企业成立前在相关行业的经验提高了新企业生存和成功的几率,同时衍生企业邻近种子企业的区位选择策略会导致产业集群的成型和集群网络的相对稳定(Dahl et al, 2009; Klepper, 2011)。组织衍生和遗传可以解释早期产业集群的形成,然而组织复制理论并没有很好地厘清新创(衍生)企业发展绩效与邻近性的逻辑。一方面,与母体企业天然的组织邻近形成了较强的认知邻近和知识遗传,导致衍生与母体企业之间本地网络的形成(Perez et al, 2003; Boschma et al, 2011)。另一方面,新企业在发展初期又强烈依赖于从母体企业继承的知识存量和本地网络(Grandi et al, 2003; Buenstorf et al, 2009)。因此,与母体企业的地理邻近被自然的看作衍生过程的原因和结果,也由此倾向于混淆组织邻近,尤其是成立后的组织邻近,与地理邻近在促进(新创)企业成长方面的作用。组织复制理论的第二个文献缺口在于普遍忽视全球化背景下非本地知识渠道和人才对衍生过程的影响,而这恰恰是发展中国家和区域经济发展的动力(Ernst et al, 2002; Yeung, 2009)。中国北京中关村科技园和台湾新竹工业园,以及印度班加罗尔软件产业集群的发展都得益于硅谷的归国创业人才,全球生产网络的发展也使得具有多区位知识和网络的人才获得独有的竞争力。因此,企业创业衍生过程得以突破本地集群尺度。总的来说,研究地方创业发展的集群环境还应将新创企业成立后与本地母体企业的组织联系动态性纳入考察框架中,因为(衍生)企业之间具有异质性(Boschma, 2015),在如何受益于与母体企业的天然联系方面有不同的战略和能力。

3 地方创业主体行为与集群转型

现代演化经济地理中以Ron Martin为代表的“牛津学派”普遍认为,集群发展是非线性的过程(Martin et al, 2007; Martin et al, 2011)。Martin等(2011)指出集群非线性路径的可能,包括集群在快速技术变革下的持续变异、集群通过渐进创新维持长期稳态,或者集群的自我调整过程。也就是说,集群发展并非遵循简单的线性逻辑,而是受到时空偶然性、企业异质性和主体能动性的影响(林涛, 2008; 王琛等, 2012; Zhu et al, 2015; 符文颖, 2016)。企业和机构的行为和互动塑造集群甚至更高层面的结构和机制,而宏观层面的特征又同时影响微观个体的行为和绩效,这种不同空间尺度的多重反馈动力机制使得集群成为具有各种反馈和自我加强机制的非线性系统(Belussi et al, 2009; Martin et al, 2011)。项目从地方创业主体的行为和战略对集群产业转型和空间转型的影响两个方面进行重点讨论。在现实经济活动中,存在大量低创新导向的企业(Wong et al, 2005),以及阻碍经济革新的寄生组织领导人(Baumol, 1990),因而本项目使用创业家来指代地方创业主体,以区别于广义的企业家,从而强调创业家的革新和能动性,突出其风险承担和“创造性破坏”的特点。

3.1 地方创业主体行为与集群的产业转型

根据Menzel等(2010)对集群发展的研究,集群生命周期可分为集群形成、集群发展和集群转型三个阶段。随着专业化集群的发展,地方企业衍生、共有技术范式的形成以及生产创新网络的建立都会使得企业异质性降低,企业间同质化竞争加剧,削弱了集群的知识溢出共享效应,集群由此进入锁定和低适应力阶段。在宏观经济转型和技术变革时期,这类集群的发展韧性较差。根据演化经济地理的技术相关性概念,多样相关的集群技术结构可通过衍生机制促进集群转型发展(Neffke et al, 2011),但集群成功转型同时有赖于充分发挥地方主体能动性,特别是地方创业家对集群资源和知识的重组,以及打破地方原有的社会网络和制度机构锁定的过程。符文颖(2016)通过整合演化、制度和关系视角,提出集群转型过程中的地方创业过程其实是创业家为了使得新产业的技术范式和组织范式获得社会合理性,与集群内其他主体之间关系网络的制度—权力实践过程,进而可促进集群转型和更新。

创业会带来技术的变革,产生一个新的利益阶层,他们需要新的制度来维护其利益,联合对新制度有需求的阶层,来建立新的制度或改变现有制度(符文颖, 2016),这也显示了制度与技术和市场共同演化的特点(刘志高等, 2011)。这种改变现有旧制度或建立新制度的行为是一个制度创业的过程(Sotarauta et al, 2011),这些改变旧制度或建立了新制度的个人和组织就是制度创业家。创业家往往是除本地公共机构和大学之外重要的制度创业主体(Hung et al, 2011; Sotarauta et al, 2015),创业活动所衍生出的技术和制度多样性能够形成对区域发展机制的创新更替。在制度创业理论中,新制度的出现需要形成对应的支持群体,这些制度创业家群体挑战现有制度规范,并共同强化新制度的社会合理性(Pacheco et al, 2010)。所谓的社会合理性,即是指行为在社会所构建的规范和价值系统下被视为合乎需要和合乎情理。因此,创业家对区域内既有技术和制度范式的革新必须通过其所在的关系网络获得认可度和影响力(Stam et al, 2012)。现有对创业网络的研究,集中在其对初创企业发展绩效的影响,而忽略了这种创业网络与外部环境的交互动态影响。而实际上企业是地方学习网络构建的主体(马海涛等, 2009),地方企业的网络构建行为能重新配置地方资源并促进资源和信息在地区间的流动(吕文栋等, 2005)。Malecki(2011)进一步指出,创业家的非本地网络是各个区域创业(创新)系统之间实现资源和知识流动和共享的重要方式,是全球尺度重要的知识连接者。也就是说,创业网络虽然具有一定的地理根植性特点,但创业家的冒险开创精神使其网络具有较大的开放性,因此研究创业家能动行为必须采用多空间尺度互动的地理视角,注重资源、网络和制度认同在各级尺度之间的转化和叠加效应。

基于此,本项目研究构建地方创业主体多空间尺度反馈战略的分析框架,深入阐释其为了转型升级本地传统产业集群的战略和行为,并借鉴制度创业理论概念化本地创业家连接全球和地方的能动性行为,具体表现为他们利用多尺度的资源,并寻求广泛的认可和形成本地协同的行动战略,指出地方企业的制度创业行为是边缘城市进行集群升级的重要途径,而边缘城市创业家这种类型创业过程的成效,在中宏观层面也决定了区域经济发展差异的格局与趋势。研究的案例地在广东揭阳中德金属生态城,是揭阳金属协会的主要会员企业通过集资建立中德金属集团,并基于传统金属集群污染高、附加值低等发展困境,在2012年投资建立的一个园区,旨在建立与德国(或欧洲)企业的联系,升级或者转型本地传统金属企业,预计投资额约为1500亿元。制度创业指的是个人或组织创造新制度或改变现有制度的创造性实践过程(Sotarauta et al, 2011)。揭阳金属生态城是全国第一个地级市层面的私人投资主导的工业园,而由于揭阳作为中国三线城市,区位优势有限,与德国企业建立合作关系的过程需要不断的谈判和协商,而这个风险主要是中德金属集团承担,并且在建立德国联系的过程中,也需要相应的改变本地金属企业的一些固有生产制度(如培训制度、合约制度等),因此是典型的制度创业行为。

通过总结揭阳本地企业、机构及其合作德国企业的30个半结构化访谈,以及在中德金属生态城项目推进过程中的参与式观察(跨度约一年),本项目发展了本地创业家的多尺度反馈战略框架。如图1所示,本地创业家采用定义诠释、经营拓展网络和集结资源主体这三个战略,并且这三个战略之间具有跨空间尺度反馈的特点。首先,揭阳企业成功建立与某个德国金属龙头企业的联系,进一步加强中德金属集团转型战略的合理性,而通过与地方、区域和国家政府机构的广泛联系,获得“中德中小企业示范区”的称号也有利于进一步拓展跨国商业网络,并能够以此吸引区域和国家的高层次管理和技术人才,弥补了该地人才流失严重的缺点。其次,揭阳的区位优势有限,本地金属企业就通过寻求与北京、上海、广州等地大型国有企业的合作,进而通过与国家区域尺度的联接创造与德国企业合作互益的优势。最后,中德金属集团通过协会企业集资的管治方式集结地方主体,可利用本地广泛的商业联系为德国投资者提供商业伙伴配对的服务,并且可以利用其对本地企业信息的掌握消除德国企业投资时对知识产权问题的顾虑。可见,揭阳本地创业家充分调动能动性,使得地方、区域、国家和全球的资源形成良性的循环,没有这样的主体能动性和跨尺度战略,通过建立全球管道进行集群转型的尝试可能会由于本地技术资源和吸收能力的缺失而最终告败。

图1   本地创业家的跨尺度反馈战略

Fig.1   Inter-scalar feedback strategies of local entrepreneurs

3.2 地方创业主体行为与集群的空间转型

一方面,地方创业主体可通过能动性实践影响集群的产业转型,另一方面,集群内的产业转型将进一步产生新的创业群体,在产业技术范式和市场范式改变的前提下,新一代创业活动可能弱化原有空间结构的制约,并通过区位选择机制成为集群空间边界拓展和空间结构转型的内在动力。现有的集群演化研究从创业主体战略入手分析集群的产业升级和转型(Sydow et al, 2012; Binz et al, 2016),却较少关注新创企业的产生与集群空间结构的有机联系,在探究创业企业的区位选择行为对集群空间演化影响方面仍有不足。Storper等(1989)提出的著名“产业塑造空间”观点认为,在新产业产生初期,企业有极大的空间选择自主权,并且受到新市场、技术和制度的共同影响(Boschma, 1997),空间获得“窗口机会”,而在形成一定的企业集聚后,窗口关闭,企业开始塑造属于特定空间的区位要素。由此可见,创业活动不仅影响集群自身的发展,同样也能够塑造空间。从集群组织个体出发,新企业的创立及其区位选择可以认为是集群空间演化的关键作用机制。

符文颖等(2017) 考察广州市软件企业的空间分布,分别对广州软件产业集群的原有核心区和新兴外围区中的创业家进行深度访谈,访谈对象中企业的建立时间涵盖了20世纪90年代至今的各个时期,结合访谈对象创业背景和发展历史,将其划分为“第一代”和“第二代”两大类型的创业家。采用Nvivo软件对20份深度访谈文本进行翻录和注解,分析在产业范式转变的背景下,地方创业区位选择机制对产业集群空间演化的影响。

根据访谈的编码和质性分析结果,符文颖等(2017)将产业集群空间演化分为三个阶段:产业集群初始发展、产业集群成熟发展、产业集群转型发展。随着“互联网+”的兴起,软件产业的关键技术和市场发生根本性转变,产业集群进入相应的转型发展阶段。“新生创业家”和“潜在创业家”有较大的市场敏感性,能够更好的感知技术和市场变化带来的发展机会。在产业发展转型的契机下,这些第二代创业者通过创新创意将技术应用延伸至更多样化的行业领域,通过产业间的联系深化产业横向发展,既避开与第一代企业的直接竞争,又通过对缝隙市场的精耕细作引导市场消费需求。由此,第二代创业企业为更好融入当地市场,倾向非正式个人关系网络和追求区位的市场接近性,使产品创新能适应所对接的目标缝隙市场。此外,产业集群在不断发展中受创新影响明显,企业要保持持续性创新才能避免在快速变化的产业经济环境中处于被动的境地,所以,当前新知识存量丰富、共进氛围浓郁的众创空间、孵化器等也成为新一代创业企业新的聚集点。

可见,新一代创业企业在集群核心区外寻找发展机遇,对产业的缝隙市场进行精耕细作,从空间上外拓产业集群,也将产业链往外延伸,丰富了产业集群的内涵,新企业和新的集聚地逐渐出现,扩大地区内原有的集群空间边界,也影响集群空间形态和结构层次的改变。对不同产业发展阶段的创业区位选择机理研究,有助于推进演化经济地理中关于新经济现象(如企业创立)空间过程的研究进展。正如Boschma等(2006)指出,在新部门发展初期,新创立企业对知识和技能的需求不能在原有核心区得到满足,在这个阶段,空间是中性的。因此在集群核心之外的区位,只要能满足基本的初创企业发展条件,都能获得发展机会。

4 产业集群发展中的地方创业研究展望

Feldman等(2005)提出创业是区域和地方现象开始,地方创业成为研究集群形成、发展和转型的重要方向,广泛吸纳融合地理学中最新的演化、制度和关系视角,并在地理学、经济学和管理学的交叉领域形成了一系列的研究成果。对于地方创业这一快速发展的新兴区域研究领域来说,在理论融合和方法创新上还面临诸多机遇和挑战,采用个人—组织—外部环境交互反馈的分析框架探讨集群发展,未来还需要继续加强和深入以下方面的研究:

(1) 集群空间组织及其运行因素(如劳动力市场、供应商网络、知识溢出等)在不同的制度背景下有特定的运行机制,特别是在中国情境下,地方创业行为受到快速全球化、制度转型、技术后发阶段、儒家文化等的影响,与西方国家有所差别。Li等(2012)发现在中国海归技术型创业家的企业发展绩效比本土企业家差,这与其本地(制度)知识和网络联系的匮乏有关,导致其更难适应外部环境变化。Fu等(2017)发现下游客户的地方集聚是促使珠三角企业建立与政府关系的重要影响因素,是因为与地方政府的关系可以提升企业在本地的商业信誉和谈判筹码,可见不同的集群结构也会影响到制度网络的特点。因此,对集群环境的研究不能停留在表象的促进因素(如企业网络、机构厚度等),而应该思考这些因素背后的制度和文化对其发生作用的调节机制。

(2) 本项目在实施过程中发现,地方主体创业行为(广义创业定义,指承担风险进行超前性创新)在广东省的边缘城市比在核心城市有更大的作为空间。由此提出新的命题,即在全球化的背景下,边缘城市的创业家有更大的空间实施战略能动行为,这也许是因为核心城市的多样化城市经济优势突出,而边缘城市的专业化经济优势更加明显,产业集群主体在地方具有更强的主导地位,因此拥有更高的网络能力和制度能力,表现出突出的主体能动性。基于该设想,本项目将原本计划的深圳数码产业集群改为揭阳金属产业集群进行研究。鉴于边缘城市创业行为的能动性特征突出,建议在未来研究中在全国范围内寻找更多经历产业转型的边缘城市作为典型案例地进行对比研究,更深入的探究不同类型的地方创业主体在不同的产业环境和区域环境下的战略能动行为。本项目建立的分析框架(图1)对分析地方创业主体战略的内在联系和尺度效应具有一定的指导意义,但由于是基于市场开放程度较高的广东省城市的案例总结,因此在拓展到其他国内城市,特别是市场机制较为落后的中西部地区时,地方创业主体可能是地方政府,其连接尺度资源和网络的行为战略与案例地中的地方企业有较大的区别,在未来的分析框架中还要考虑政治资源和制度认同的尺度反馈效应对本地集群转型的影响。

(3) 通过企业和个人数据的调查和整合,可基于地方创业视角从微观角度更好地考察和探讨中国产业集群发展动力。在定量方法应用方面,主要有两种数据类型,第一类是一手收集的创业企业和企业主问卷调查,其优势是可自行设置变量进行假设验证,以推进理论进展,但缺陷是地理范围较为局限,通常只能在某一特定区域开展研究;第二类是在更大的地理尺度上整合各类公开数据库,创新性的设计地方创业相关的变量,以检验其与集群环境和发展之间的关系。随着创业经济在全球的兴起,创业调查和数据库建设得到国家和国际机构的重视。在新创企业层面,国内目前可利用的数据库包括全国规模以上工业企业数据库、全国高新技术认定企业数据库、全国创业板企业数据库、全国中小企业股份转让系统数据等;在个人创业层面,可利用的数据库包括全球创业观察(GEM)在中国的区域细分数据、中国私营企业抽样调查数据、中国劳动力动态调查数据等。尽管这些数据库正开始被创业研究学者利用(He, 2018),但数据挖掘及与其他区域和集群尺度的数据整合还存在较大的研究空间。另一方面,面对集群演化过程中的复杂性,必须结合应用定性方法,如利用历史归纳分析法、关键事件法、焦点小组访谈法、参与式观察等方法分析质性材料,特别中国改革开放后区域发展的多样性可提供更多的案例库进行对比分析,从而加深对集群主体能动性在不同时空和历史背景下的创业发展特点和发展路径的认识。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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<p>本文综述了产业地理集中、产业地理集聚以及产业集群的测量与辨识方法。传统的测量 产业地理集中方法包括集中系数、变差系数、赫芬代尔系数、赫希曼- 赫芬代尔系数、信息熵、锡尔 系数以及基尼系数等, 这些系数测量产业总体地理集中程度, 没有考虑企业规模分布对产业地理 集中的影响。基于企业区位选择模型, 经济学家发展了测量产业地理集聚的指数, 控制产业内企 业规模分布对产业地理集中的影响。无论地理集中指数还是地理集聚系数都以行政单元为基础, 仅描述单一空间尺度上的产业区位模式。Ripley 的K 函数通过计算某个企业一定距离内的邻居 企业个数来测量产业的地理集聚程度, 可同时反映产业在不同空间尺度的集聚程度。相互联系的 一群企业在地理空间上的集聚构成了产业集群, 产业集群的辨识不仅要测量产业间联系, 也要考 虑产业地理临近性。区位商和标准化区位商法、空间相关与产业联系法、因子分析和聚类分析等 多元统计方法以及基于投入产出关系的图谱分析方法等可以用来作为辨识区域产业集群手段。</p>

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20 世纪80 年代以来,产业集群成为一种新的区域发展模式,受到理论工作者和政策制定者越来越多的关注。近些年来,从演化经济地理学理论学派的视角研究产业集群形成的动力、演化路径成为集群研究中的热点之一。本文首先介绍了产业集群形成的传统解释及其不足,然后回顾了演化经济地理学视角下的产业集群形成的研究进展,并总结了研究特点和主要研究思路,最后指出了在中国应用研究中需要注意的问题。

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20 世纪80 年代以来,产业集群成为一种新的区域发展模式,受到理论工作者和政策制定者越来越多的关注。近些年来,从演化经济地理学理论学派的视角研究产业集群形成的动力、演化路径成为集群研究中的热点之一。本文首先介绍了产业集群形成的传统解释及其不足,然后回顾了演化经济地理学视角下的产业集群形成的研究进展,并总结了研究特点和主要研究思路,最后指出了在中国应用研究中需要注意的问题。
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20世纪西方地理学特别是人文地理学的发展史,就是一种"区域主义"运动并不断转折的历史.文章以区域研究及其争论为核心,分析了20世纪西方地理学从区域地理学到区域方法、从区域方法到区域主义、从区域主义到区域主义的解构、从区域主义的解构到新区域主义的建构等四次重大转向的历史脉络,探讨了区域研究范式不断转向的原因及其意义,并在此基础上阐释了当前西方地理学"新区域主义"运动的性质和特点.

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20世纪西方地理学特别是人文地理学的发展史,就是一种"区域主义"运动并不断转折的历史.文章以区域研究及其争论为核心,分析了20世纪西方地理学从区域地理学到区域方法、从区域方法到区域主义、从区域主义到区域主义的解构、从区域主义的解构到新区域主义的建构等四次重大转向的历史脉络,探讨了区域研究范式不断转向的原因及其意义,并在此基础上阐释了当前西方地理学"新区域主义"运动的性质和特点.
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就如何提高产业集群的学习和创新能力,存在“强调地方网络”和“依靠外部网络”两种对立的观点,事实上连接内外两种网络是更为有效的方式。在对产业集群学习过程剖析的基础上,运用社会学领域的行动者网络理论,将内部和外部网络同时考虑,试图构建一个容企业、组织、物质和概念在内的异质的行动者网络,并为产业集群如何增加知识存量、促进学习交流和激发知识创新等提供一些建议。

[Ma H T, Miao C H, Gao J B.2009.

Construction of learning network of industrial clusters from the perspective of activist network theory

[J]. Economic Geography, 29(8): 1327-1331.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

就如何提高产业集群的学习和创新能力,存在“强调地方网络”和“依靠外部网络”两种对立的观点,事实上连接内外两种网络是更为有效的方式。在对产业集群学习过程剖析的基础上,运用社会学领域的行动者网络理论,将内部和外部网络同时考虑,试图构建一个容企业、组织、物质和概念在内的异质的行动者网络,并为产业集群如何增加知识存量、促进学习交流和激发知识创新等提供一些建议。
[9] 王琛, 林初昇, 戴世续. 2012.

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[Wang C, Lin C S, Dai S X.2012.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9505-9      URL      [本文引用: 3]     

[11] Audretsch D B, Lehmann E E.2005.

Does the knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship hold for regions

[J]. Research Policy, 34(8): 1191-1202.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2005.03.012      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The purpose of this paper is to test whether the Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship holds for regions. We do this by linking investments in knowledge by universities and regions to the amount of entrepreneurial activity associated with each university. Using binomial regressions we estimate how the number of young and high-tech firms located around universities depends on regional factors and the output of universities. The results clearly show that the number of firms located close to a university is positively influenced by the knowledge capacity of this region and the knowledge output of a university. Thus, there is considerable evidence suggesting that the Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship holds for regions as well as for industries.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310802682065      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The aim of this article is to shed light on the evolutionary process of industrial districts (IDs), evaluating the role of path dependence in their growth trajectories. We intend here to identify the districts' life cycles and the factors that influence the origin, development and maturity stages. Following an evolutionary economics approach, we investigated the path-dependence mechanism behind the evolution of IDs. By adopting a qualitative meta-study approach, the paper shows how different IDs have changed over time and how their growth pattern is partially determined by initial conditions and by heterogeneous capabilities cultivated by district firms. The analysis is applied to 12 case studies of Italian IDs developed in the literature, following the model of qualitative meta-analysis for theory building. The results provided add new insights to the present literature on evolutionary geography by indicating some key triggering factors. Our contribution shows that instead of a standardized life cycle, Italian IDs follow a multiple growth pattern in their development.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/00130095.2015.1103177      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Where and how new industrial paths emerge are much debated questions in economic geography, especially in light of the recent evolutionary turn. This article contributes to the ongoing debate on path creation with a new analytical framework that specifies the formation of generic resources in embryonic industries. It suggests that path creation processes are not only conditioned by preexisting regional capabilities and technological relatedness but also by the way firm and nonfirm actors mobilize and anchor key resources for industry formation. Our framework elaborates on the early industry development phase, extending the focus on regional knowledge spillovers in evolutionary economic geography (EEG) literature with recent insights on industry formation dynamics from innovation studies. It understands early path creation as conditioned by four systemic resource formation processes?knowledge creation, investment mobilization, market formation, and technology legitimation?that can be mobilized both from inside or anchored from outside the region. The use and value of the analytical framework is illustrated by a case study on on-site water recycling technology (OST), based on interviews with 40 experts in three Chinese city regions. The findings suggest that, despite possessing the least favorable initial conditions, a sizable OST industry developed only in Beijing. This is explained based on the specific anchoring process of the four key resources in the early development stage of the industry. Our results imply that EEG would profit from incorporating a broader set of variables than knowledge-based relatedness in explanations of regional industrial path creation.
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[16] Boschma R A.2015.

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[J]. Industrial and Corporate Change, 24(4): 859-873.

https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtv024      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Steven Klepper’s theory of industry clustering based on organizational reproduction and inheritance through spinoffs challenged the Marshallian view on industry clustering. This article provides an assessment of Klepper’s theoretical and empirical work on industry clustering. We explore how “new” his spinoff theory on industry clustering was, and we investigate the impact of Klepper’s theory on the economic geography community. Klepper’s work has inspired especially recent literature on regional branching that argues that new industries grow out of and recombine capabilities from local related industries. Finally, the article discusses what questions on industry location are still left open or in need of more evidence in the context of Klepper’s theory.
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[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 6(3): 273-302.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbi022      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The paper explains the commonalities and differences between neoclassical, institutional and evolutionary approaches that have been influential in economic geography during the last couple of decades. For all three approaches, we argue that they are in agreement in some respects and in conflict in other respects. While explaining to what extent and in what ways the Evolutionary Economic Geography approach differs from the New Economic Geography and the Institutional Economic Geography, we can specify the value-added of economic geography as an evolutionary science.
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B2C—bubble to cluster: The dot-com boom, spin-off entrepreneurship, and regional agglomeration

[J]. Journal of evolutionary Economics, 19(3): 349-378.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00191-008-0119-3      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article studies entrepreneurial activities emerging out of one of Germany's most prominent dot.com firms: Intershop, a maker of e-commerce software. We show that Intershop spawned at least 30 spin-offs. The majority entered locally, giving rise to a small but growing software cluster and counteracting the job losses accompanying the parent firm's drastic downsizing after 2000. We trace the knowledge transfer from Intershop to the spin-offs and relate it to recent theorizing on the spin-off process as well as spin-off-based cluster formation. The Intershop case suggests that temporarily successful dot.coms could exert lasting effects on regional development.
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[22] Delgado M, Porter M E, Stern S.2010.

Clusters and entrepreneurship

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[23] Ernst D, Kim L.2002.

Global production networks, knowledge diffusion, and local capability formation

[J]. Research Policy, 31(8-9): 1417-1429.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00072-0      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper develops a conceptual framework that explores the linkage between the evolution of global production networks (GPN), the role of network flagships in transferring knowledge, and the formation of capabilities by local suppliers. GPN are a major innovation in the organization of international business. These networks combine concentrated dispersion of the value chain across the boundaries of the firm and national borders, with a parallel process of integrating hierarchical layers of network participants. The network flagships transfer both explicit and tacit knowledge to local suppliers through formal and informal mechanisms. This is necessary to upgrade the local suppliers’ technical and managerial skills, so that they can meet the flagships’ specifications. We also examine how GPN can act as mediators in the capability formation of local suppliers.
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[25] Feldman M, Francis J, Bercovitz J.2005.

Creating a cluster while building a firm: Entrepreneurs and the formation of industrial clusters

[J]. Regional Studies 39(1): 129-141.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0034340052000320888      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

Feldman M. P., Francis J. and Bercovitz, J. (2005) Creating a cluster while building a firm: entrepreneurs and the formation of industrial clusters, Regional Studies39, 129-141. The objective of the paper is to provide a theoretical model of cluster development that is informed by an appreciative interpretation of case studies. It argues that entrepreneurs are a critical element in the formation of clusters. Entrepreneurs are important actors in the development of clusters as complex adaptive systems, where the external resources associated with clusters are developed over time. Entrepreneurs who adapt to both constructive crises and new opportunities create the factors and conditions that facilitate their business interests and, in turn, contribute to the development of external resources. The paper examines the initial factors that influence the decision to become an entrepreneur and examine how external factors influence the formation and location of high-technology clusters. Feldman M. P., Francis J. et Bercovitz, J. (2005) L'établissment d'un regroupement au fur et à mesure de la création d'entreprise: les entrepreneurs et l'établissement des regroupements industriels, Regional Studies39, 129-141. Cet article cherche à construire un modèle théorique du développement des regroupements guidé par une interprétation sensible des études de cas. On considère que les entrepreneurs constituent un facteur clé dans l'établissement des regroupements. Les entrepreneurs sont des agents importants dans le développement des regroupements en tant que systèmes complexes adaptables, où les ressources externes liées aux regroupements se développent sur le temps. Les entrepreneurs qui s'adaptent et aux crises avantageuses, et aux nouvelles possibilités, créent les facteurs et les conditions qui favorisent leurs affaires et, à leur tour, contribuent au développement des ressources externes. On examine les premiers facteurs qui influencent la décision individuelle de devenir entrepreneur, et on étudie comment les facteurs externes influencent l'établissement et la localisation des regroupements qui sont à la pointe de la technologie. Feldman M. P., Francis J. und Bercovitz, J. (2005) Schaffung eines Clusters in Verbindung mit dem Aufbau einer Firma: Unternehmer und Clusterbildung der Industrie, Regional Studies39, 129-141. Dieser Aufsatz beabsichtigt, ein theoretisches Modell einer Clusterentwicklung vorzustellen, das auf einer bewertenden Interpretation von Fallstudien beruht. Es wird die These aufgestellt, da08 Unternehmer bei Clusterbildung ein kritisches Element darstellen. Unternehmer sind wichtige Spieler bei der Entwicklung von Clustern als komplexen Mittlersystemen, in denen die externen, mit Clustern in Verbindung stehenden Resourcen erst im Laufe der Zeit entwickelt werden. Unternehmer, die sich sowohl konstruktiven Krisen als auch neu auftauchenden Gelegenheiten anzupassen verstehen, schaffen Faktoren und Voraussetzungen, die ihren Gesch01ftsinteressen entgegenkommen, und selbst wiederum zur Entwicklung externer Resourcen beitragen. Die Autoren untersuchen die anf01nglichen Faktoren, welche die Entscheidung, Unternehmer zu werden, beeinflussen, und inwiefern externe Faktoren Bildung und Standort hochtechnologischer Cluster bestimmen. Feldman M. P., Francis J. y Bercovitz, J. (2005) Crear un cluster mientras se construye una empresa: emprendedores (entrepreneurs) y la formación de clusters industriales, Regional Studies39, 129-141. El objetivo de este artículo es ofrecer un modelo teórico de desarrollo de clusters basado en una interpretación apreciativa de estudios de casos. Sostenemos que los emprendedores son uno de los elementos críticos en el desarrollo de clusters como sistemas de adaptación complejos, donde los recursos externos que se asocian con los clusters se desarrollan a lo largo del tiempo. Los emprendedores, los cuales se adaptan tanto a crisis constructivas como a nuevas oportunidades, crean los factores y las condiciones que facilitan los intereses de sus negocios y, como resultado, contribuyen al desarrollo de los recursos externos. Examinamos los factores que influyen inicialmente en su decisión de convertirse en emprendedores y examinamos de qué forma los factores externos influyen la formación y localización de clusters de alta tecnología.
[26] Fritsch M, Aamoucke R.2013.

Regional public research, higher education, and innovative start-ups: An empirical investigation

[J]. Small Business Economics, 41(4): 865-885.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-013-9510-z      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[27] Fu W Y.2016.

Industrial clusters as hothouses for nascent entrepreneurs? The case of Tianhe Software Park in Guangzhou, China

[J]. The Annals of Regional Science, 57(1): 253-270.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-016-0776-3      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Abstract Taking the entrepreneurial activities as a local phenomenon, this paper aims to investigate the way that individual active embeddedness in cluster environment influences on the entrepreneurial intentions and locational preference of the nascent entrepreneurs. Drawing on the employee survey data in the Tianhe Software Park in Guangzhou, China, the empirical results have distinguished between impacts of cluster on nurturing and anchoring nascent entrepreneurs. Firstly, it has been shown that the awareness of role model entrepreneurs in the cluster enhances the entrepreneurial intentions of the employees. Secondly, the embeddedness in personal relations with suppliers and customers has proven to exert significant impact in the locational preferences toward the cluster of origin. Overall, the findings of the paper have shed light on how cluster environment poses its impact on nascent entrepreneurs through different mechanisms in the different decision-making processes. The implications of the findings for entrepreneurial policy are discussed in the concluding section.
[28] Fu W Y, Schiller D, Revilla Diez J.2017.

Determinants of networking practices in the Chinese transition context: Empirical insights from the Pearl River Delta

[J]. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 108(2): 205-219.

https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12206      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract The underlying spatial forces of firm networking practices are understudied in the literature of economic geography. This paper aims to reveal patterns and mechanisms of networking practices and relates them to China's transitional context based on empirical data from a firm survey in the Pearl River Delta. It addresses the localisation effect as the primary factor in explaining the selection of networking partners. The results of this paper suggest a strong tendency towards networking with local government agencies vis- -vis weak linkages with business partners. Furthermore, it reveals that the intent of bonding with local authorities through interpersonal relationships increases with the localisation of customers. Meanwhile, firms are more likely to pursue learning-oriented networks with competitors as the number of suppliers in the same city increases. The findings add to the understanding of network relations in China, in particular to the rationales behind relations to local government officials.
[29] Glaeser E L, Kerr W R.2009.

Local industrial conditions and entrepreneurship: How much of the spatial distribution can we explain

[J]? Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 18(3): 623-663.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9134.2009.00225.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract Top of page Abstract 1.68 Introduction 2.68 Manufacturing Entrepreneurship 3.68 Determinants of Entrepreneurship 4.68 Empirical Estimations 5.68 Conclusions References Why are some places more entrepreneurial than others? We use Census Bureau data to study local determinants of manufacturing startups across cities and industries. Demographics have limited explanatory power. Overall levels of local customers and suppliers are only modestly important, but new entrants seem particularly drawn to areas with many smaller suppliers, as suggested by Chinitz (1961) . Abundant workers in relevant occupations also strongly predict entry. These forces plus city and industry fixed effects explain between 60% and 80% of manufacturing entry. We use spatial distributions of natural cost advantages to address partially endogeneity concerns.
[30] Grandi A., Grimaldi R.2003.

Exploring the networking characteristics of new venture founding teams

[J]. Small Business Economics, 21(4): 329-341.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026171206062      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[31] He C, Lu J, Qian H.2018.

Entrepreneurship in China

[J]. Small Business Economics, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-017-9972-5.

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[32] Henrekson M, Sanandaji T.2014.

Small business activity does not measure entrepreneurship

[J]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(5): 1760-1765.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1307204111      URL      PMID: 24449873      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Entrepreneurship policy mainly aims to promote innovative Schumpeterian entrepreneurship. However, the rate of entrepreneurship is commonly proxied using quantity-based metrics, such as small business activity, the self-employment rate, or the number of startups. We argue that those metrics give rise to misleading inferences regarding high-impact Schumpeterian entrepreneurship. To unambiguously identify high-impact entrepreneurs we focus on self-made billionaires (in US dollars) who appear on Forbes Magazine's list and who became wealthy by founding new firms. We identify 996 such billionaire entrepreneurs in 50 countries in 1996-2010, a systematic cross-country study of billionaire entrepreneurs. The rate of billionaire entrepreneurs correlates negatively with self-employment, small business ownership, and firm startup rates. Countries with higher income, higher trust, lower taxes, more venture capital investment, and lower regulatory burdens have higher billionaire entrepreneurship rates but less self-employment. Despite its limitations, the number of billionaire entrepreneurs appears to be a plausible cross-country measure of Schumpeterian entrepreneurship.
[33] Hung S-C, Whittington R.2011.

Agency in national innovation systems: Institutional entrepreneurship and the professionalization of Taiwanese IT

[J]. Research Policy, 40(4): 526-538.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.01.008      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper examines institutional entrepreneurship as a form of internal agency within national innovation systems. In particular, we consider the entrepreneurship of Taiwanese IT firms over 1980–2007 in creating a new professionalized organizational form markedly different from the traditional Taiwanese model of family business. We compare two successful sectors – personal computers and semiconductors – and one failure – hard disk drives. We emphasize how entrepreneurial firms used strategies of framing, aggregating and networking (F.A.N.) to build legitimacy, mobilize local resources and reach out beyond the limitations of their immediate contexts. We discuss how F.A.N. strategies may evolve from ‘introversion’ to ‘extraversion’ and develop implications for policy-makers and further research.
[34] Kenney M, Patton D.2005.

Entrepreneurial geographies: Support networks in three high-technology industries

[J]. Economic Geography, 81(2): 201-228.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2005.tb00265.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract: Using a unique database derived from prospectuses for U.S. initial public stock offerings, we examine the location of four actors (the firm's lawyers, the venture capitalists on the board of directors, the other members of the board of directors, and the lead investment banker) of the entrepreneurial support network for startup firms in three high-technology industries: semiconductors, telecommunications equipment, and biotechnology. We demonstrate that the economic geography of the biotechnology support network differs significantly from the networks in semiconductors and telecommunications equipment. Biotechnology has a far-more-dispersed entrepreneurial support network structure than do the two electronics-related industries. The case of biotechnology indicates that if the source of seeds for new firms is highly dispersed, then an industry may not experience the path-dependent clustering suggested by geographers. We argue that contrary to common belief, biotechnology and its support network do not exhibit as great a clustering as do semiconductors and telecommunications equipment and their support networks. This argument leads to an epistemological issue, namely, the lack of interindustry comparative work. This is an odd omission, since nearly all authors agree that industries are based on particular knowledge bases, yet few consider that the knowledge and the sources of it may have an impact on spatial distributions.
[35] Kibler E, Kautonen T, Fink M.2014.

Regional social legitimacy of entrepreneurship: Implications for entrepreneurial intention and start-up behavior

[J]. Regional Studies, 48(6): 995-1015.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.851373      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Kibler E., Kautonen T. and Fink M. Regional social legitimacy of entrepreneurship: implications for entrepreneurial intention and start-up behaviour, Regional Studies. A new understanding of the role of regional culture in the emergence of business start-up behaviour is developed. The focal construct is regional social legitimacy: the perception of the desirability and appropriateness of entrepreneurship in a region. The econometric analysis utilizes a combination of bespoke longitudinal survey data from 65 regions in Austria and Finland, and variables capturing regional socio-economic characteristics derived from official statistics. The study demonstrates that, and explains how, regional social legitimacy influences the relationships between individual entrepreneurial beliefs, intentions and start-up behaviour and how these interaction effects are conditioned by the socio-economic characteristics of the region.
[36] Klepper S.2011.

Nano-economics, spinoffs, and the wealth of regions

[J]. Small Business Economics, 37(2): 141-154.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9352-5      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The historical evolution of four prominent industry clusters is compared: automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, tires in Akron, Ohio, semiconductors in Silicon Valley, California, and cotton garments in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Detailed data are collected concerning the intellectual and geographic origins of entrants into the clusters and other regions to probe the mechanisms underlying geographic clustering. The main mechanism at work in the four clusters involves employees leaving established firms to found their own firms or shape new entrants in their industry. Questions and policy implications related to the spinoff mechanism and the mobility of employees are discussed.
[37] Kshetri N.2009.

Entrepreneurship in Post-Socialist economies: A typology and institutional contexts for market entrepreneurship

[J]. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 7(3): 236-259.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10843-009-0039-9      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[38] Lafuente E, Vaillant Y, Rialp J.2007.

Regional differences in the influence of role models: Comparing the entrepreneurial process of rural Catalonia

[J]. Regional Studies, 41(6): 779-796.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601120247      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Lafuente E., Vaillant Y. and Rialp J. (2007) Regional differences in the influence of role models: comparing the entrepreneurial process of rural Catalonia, Regional Studies 41, 779–795. The paper examines the impact of entrepreneurial role models on the entrepreneurial process in rural areas with a strong entrepreneurial history versus those not necessarily characterized by such a tradition. To attain this objective, a socio-cultural institutional approach to entrepreneurship is adopted. A Rare Events logit model using a robust Spanish data set from 2003 is carried out. The main contribution of the study indicates that the difference between entrepreneurial activity levels in rural Spain is in large part explained by the presence of entrepreneurial role models favouring entrepreneurial activity in rural Catalonia, an area with a strong entrepreneurial tradition. Lafuente E., Vaillant Y. et Rialp J. (2007) Les écarts régionaux quant à l'influence des Modèles: une comparaison de l'esprit d'entreprise dans la Catalogne, Regional Studies 41, 779–795. Cet article cherche à examiner l'impact des Modèles entrepreneuriaux sur le processus entrepreneurial dans les zones rurales dotées d'une histoire entrepreneuriale longue par rapport à celles qui n'ont pas une telle vocation. Pour aborder cette question, on emploie une fa04on institutionnelle, socioculturelle. On réalise un modèle logit Rare Events (événements exceptionnels) en se servant d'un ensemble de données espagnoles solide qui date de 2003. Il s'avère principalement que les écarts régionaux en Espagne pour ce qui est de l'esprit d'entreprise s'expliquent dans une large mesure par la présence des Modèles entrepreneuriaux qui favorisent les activités entrepreneuriales dans la Catalogne rurale, une région dont l'histoire entrepreneuriale est longue. Esprit d'entreprise rural69Facteurs institutionnels informels69Modèle Lafuente E., Vaillant Y. und Rialp J. (2007) Regionale Unterschiede beim Einfluss von Vorbildern: ein Vergleich des Unternehmensprozesses im l01ndlichen Katalonien, Regional Studies 41, 779–795. In diesem Aufsatz untersuchen wir die Auswirkung unternehmerischer Vorbilder auf den unternehmerischen Prozess in l01ndlichen Gebieten mit ausgepr01gter Unternehmensgeschichte im Vergleich zu Gebieten, die sich nicht unbedingt durch eine solche Tradition auszeichnen. Zu diesem Zweck betrachten wir das Unternehmertum aus einer soziokulturellen und institutionellen Perspektive. Aus einem robusten spanischen Datensatz von 2003 entwickeln wir ein Rare-Events-Logit-Modell. Der Hauptteil dieser Studie weist darauf hin, dass die Unterschiede hinsichtlich des Ausma08es der unternehmerischen Aktivit01t im l01ndlichen Spanien sich zum gro08en Teil durch das Vorhandensein unternehmerischer Vorbilder im l01ndlichen Katalonien (einer Region mit ausgepr01gter unternehmerischer Tradition) erkl01ren l01sst, die sich f02rdernd auf das Unternehmertum auswirken. L01ndliches Unternehmertum69Informelle institutionelle Faktoren69Vorbild Lafuente E., Vaillant Y. y Rialp J. (2007) Impacto diferencial de los ‘role models’ en distintos ámbitos regionales: El Proceso Emprendedor en zonas rurales de Catalu09a, Regional Studies 41, 779–795. El documento examina el impacto que tiene la presencia de recientes y exitosos emprendedores (role model) sobre el proceso emprendedor en áreas rurales con una fuerte tradición emprendedora respecto de aquellas áreas rurales que no muestran dicha característica. Para alcanzar este objetivo se adopta un enfoque institucional y socio cultural hacia la creación de empresas, y se utiliza un modelo logit ajustado para eventos extra09os sobre una base de datos espa09ola para el a09o 2003. La principal contribución del trabajo indica que la diferencia entre los niveles de actividad emprendedora en la Espa09a rural es en gran medida explicada por la presencia de modelos emprendedores que favorecen la actividad emprendedora en áreas rurales como Catalu09a, una región que cuenta con una alta tradición emprendedora. Proceso emprendedor en zonas rurales69Instituciones informales69‘Role model’
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Entrepreneurship

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[40] Li H, Zhang Y, Li Y, et al.2012.

Returnees versus locals: Who perform better in china's technology entrepreneurship

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https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1139      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

We examine performance differences between new ventures led by returnees and those led by their local counterparts in China. We argue that while, compared with locals, returnees have the advantages of higher education and overseas experience, they also have disadvantages in their home country in terms of lack of both local connections and local knowledge. Since returnees' effect on venture performance is the net effect of their advantages and disadvantages, contextual factors that can help them overcome their disadvantages should improve their ventures' performance. With a sample of new technology ventures in China, we find strong support for this argument. Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society.
[41] Malecki E J.2011.

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Corporate research and development (R&D) and knowledge networks of large and small firms are responding to widespread availability of talent and diverse knowledge. Much of this dispersed knowledge arises from entrepreneurial activity, originating in universities, research institutes and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Three important approaches have been introduced recently to understand R&D strategy in the context of global or metanational networks: open innovation, knowledge integration and a double network structure. The contribution of this paper is to analyse these approaches as affecting and affected by the presence of regional innovative ecosystems and their attraction as locations of R&D. This suggests a simultaneous need for local and global, as well as internal and external, knowledge integration.
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https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbm019      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Thus far, most of the work towards the construction of an evolutionary economicgeography has drawn upon a particular version of evolutionary economics, namelythe Nelson-Winter framework, which blends Darwinian concepts and metaphors(especially variety, selection, novelty and inheritance) and elements of a behaviouraltheory of the firm. Much less attention has been directed to an alternative conceptionbased on complexity theory, yet in recent years complexity theory has increasingly beenconcerned with the general attributes of evolutionary natural and social systems. In thisarticle we explore the idea of the economic landscape as a complex adaptive system.We identify several key notions of what is being called the new ‘complexity economics’,and examine whether and in what ways these can be used to help inform anevolutionary perspective for understanding the uneven development and adaptivetransformation of the economic landscape.
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Conceptualizing cluster evolution: Beyond the life cycle model

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Martin R. and Sunley P. Conceptualizing cluster evolution: beyond the life cycle model?, Regional Studies. Although the literature on the evolution of industrial clusters is not vast, a preferred approach has already become evident based around the idea of a cluster ‘life cycle’. This approach has several limitations. This paper explores a different conception of cluster evolution, drawing on the ‘adaptive cycle’ model that has been developed in evolutionary ecology. Using this model, cluster evolution is viewed as an adaptive process with different possible outcomes based on episodic interactions of nested systems. Though not without limitations, this approach offers greater scope as a framework for shaping the research agenda into the evolution of clusters. Martin R. and Sunley P. 对集群演进进行概念化:生命周期模型之外的新解读?区域研究。尽管目前关于产业集群演进的相关研究有限,围绕集群生命周期这一概念分析方法展开研究已成为明显的趋势。然而这一方法存在诸多制约。本文探讨了关于集群演进的不同概念,着重于演进生态学中的适应性管理模式。采用这一模式,集群演进被看作是适应性的程序,其结果基于嵌套系统之间阶段性的互动。尽管没有局限,这一方法为集群演进的研究搭建了更为广阔的分析框架及研究议程。 集群69演进69生命周期模型69复杂系统69适应性周期模型 Martin R. et Sunley P. La conceptualisation de l'évolution des clusters: aller au-delà du modèle du cycle de vie?, Regional Studies. Bien que la documentation sur l'évolution des clusters industriels ne soit pas très riche, il s'avère déjà une fa04on préférée de l'aborder basée sur la notion du ‘cycle de vie’ des clusters. Cette fa04on a ses limites. Cet article cherche à examiner une différente conception de l'évolution des clusters, puisant dans le modèle du ‘cycle adaptif’ con04u dans l'écologie évolutionnaire. A partir de ce modèle, on considère l'évolution des clusters comme un processus adaptif dont les résultats possibles varient en fonction des interactions épisodiques des sytèmes embo06tés. Cette fa04on a aussi ses limites, mais elle fournit plus de possibilités en tant que cadre pour déterminer les priorités de la recherche quant à l'évolution des clusters. Clusters6907volution69Modèles du cycle de vie69Systèmes complexes69Modèle du cycle adaptif Martin R. und Sunley P. Konzeptualisierung der Evolution von Clustern: jenseits des Lebenszyklus-Modells?, Regional Studies. Die Literatur über die Evolution von Branchenclustern ist zwar nicht sehr umfangreich, doch es zeichnet sich bereits ein bevorzugter Ansatz ab, der auf der Vorstellung des ‘Lebenszyklus’ eines Clusters aufbaut. Dieser Ansatz weist jedoch in vielerlei Hinsicht seine Grenzen auf. In diesem Beitrag wird eine andere Konzeption der Cluster-Evolution untersucht, die auf dem in der evolution01ren 00kologie entwickelten Modell des ‘adaptiven Zyklus’ aufbaut. Anhand dieses Modells wird die Evolution von Clustern als adaptiver Prozess mit verschiedenen m02glichen Ergebnissen auf der Grundlage der episodischen Wechselwirkungen von verschachtelten Systemen betrachtet. Auch dieser Ansatz hat zwar seine Grenzen, bietet jedoch bei der Gestaltung des Programms zur Erforschung der Cluster-Evolution einen breiteren Rahmen. Cluster69Evolution69Lebenszyklus-Modell69Komplexe Systeme69Adaptives Zyklusmodell Martin R. y Sunley P. Conceptualizar la evolución de las aglomeraciones: 07más allá del modelo de ciclo de vida?, Regional Studies. Aunque la bibliografía sobre la evolución de las aglomeraciones industriales no es muy extensa, se ha hecho evidente un enfoque preferido basado en la idea del ‘ciclo de vida’ de una aglomeración. Este enfoque presenta varias limitaciones. En este artículo analizamos un concepto diferente de la evolución de las aglomeraciones basándonos en el modelo de ‘ciclo adaptable’ que se ha desarrollado en la ecología evolucionaria. A partir de este modelo estudiamos la evolución como un proceso adaptable con diferentes resultados posibles basados en las interacciones esporádicas de los sistemas anidados. Aunque este enfoque tiene algunas limitaciones, ofrece mayor margen como una estructura para formar el programa de investigación sobre la evolución de las aglomeraciones. Aglomeraciones69Evolución69Modelo de ciclo de vida69Sistemas complejos69Modelo de ciclo adaptable
[44] Menzel M P, Fornahl D.2010.

Cluster life cycles: Dimensions and rationales of cluster evolution

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https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtp036      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

We present a model that explains how a cluster moves through a life cycle and why this movement differs from the industry life cycle. The model is based on three key processes: the changing heterogeneity in the cluster describes the movement of the cluster through the life cycle; the geographical absorptive capacity enables clustered companies to take advantage of a larger diversity of knowledge and the stronger convergence of clustered companies compared to non-clustered companies results in a reduction of heterogeneity. We apply these processes to four stages of the cluster life cycle: emergence, growth, sustainment and decline.
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How do regions diversify over time? Industry relatedness and the development of new growth paths in regions

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The question of how new regional growth paths emerge has been raised by many leading economic geographers. From an evolutionary perspective, there are strong reasons to believe that regions are most likely to branch into industries that are technologically related to the preexisting industries in the regions. Using a new indicator of technological relatedness between manufacturing industries, we analyzed the economic evolution of 70 Swedish regions from 1969 to 2002 with detailed plant-level data. Our analyses show that the long-term evolution of the economic landscape in Sweden is subject to strong path dependencies. Industries that were technologically related to the preexisting industries in a region had a higher probability of entering that region than did industries that were technologically unrelated to the region's preexisting industries. These industries had a higher probability of exiting that region. Moreover, the industrial profiles of Swedish regions showed a high degree of technological cohesion. Despite substantial structural change, this cohesion was persistent over time. Our methodology also proved useful when we focused on the economic evolution of one particular region. Our analysis indicates that the Link脙露ping region increased its industrial cohesion over 30 years because of the entry of industries that were closely related to its regional portfolio and the exit of industries that were technologically peripheral. In summary, we found systematic evidence that the rise and fall of industries is strongly conditioned by industrial relatedness at the regional level.
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This paper reports the results of a two-phase study that explores new venture creation within the context of an entrepreneurial system. First, a genealogy of high-technology companies is presented depicting a high spin-off rate resulting from the presence of seven incubator organizations. Second, semantic structure analysis ( Spradley 1980 ) based on semi-structured interviews with founders is used to develop a taxonomy. This taxonomy depicts the relationship among components in one entrepreneurial system, Boulder County, Colorado, that encourages, supports, and enhances regional entrepreneurial activity. Findings indicate that incubator organizations, spin-offs, informal and formal networks, the physical infrastructure, and the culture of the region are related uniquely and interact to form a system conducive for dense high-technology entrepreneurial activity. Additionally, greater rates of new venture formation were found following critical moments in the life of incubator organizations.
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This article provides a review and analysis of institutional entrepreneurship research with a focus on the emergence of this literature within two largely diver
[48] Perez M P, Sanchez A M.2003.

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Measuring the contributions of ‘hi-tech’ small firms by looking only at their product sales, innovation outputs and employment generation may understate their effectiveness. Another important contribution of entrepreneurship ‘hi-tech’ firms is their catalyzing role to knowledge creation and transfer in innovation networks. This paper addresses two exploratory research questions: how active in network development and technology transfer are university spin-offs during their early years to overcome initial disadvantages? Is there any relationship between early networks development and knowledge creation and technology transfer in university spin-offs? Using data from companies spun off from a Spanish university in the period 1990–2000, the empirical results suggest that technology transfer and networking at university spin-offs decreased after their early years but at the same time the relationships with customers increased.
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The geographical nature of knowledge spillovers and entrepreneurship has been well documented in the literature. In most regional or urban studies, these two topics are separately discussed. This research reviews literature at the intersection of knowledge spillovers, entrepreneurship, and regional economic development. The key argument is that entrepreneurship can serve as a mechanism for transmitting knowledge spillovers and accordingly contribute to regional innovation, cluster formation, and economic development. However, the effectiveness of this mechanism depends on various factors in the regional entrepreneurial ecosystem, notably including knowledge bases, absorptive capacity, competition, networks of people, diversity, and culture.
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This paper is about the impact of clusters on entrepreneurship at the regional level. Defining entrepreneurship as the creation of new organisations and clusters as a geographically proximate group of interconnected firms and associated institutions in related industries, this paper aims to answer three research questions: first, do clusters matter to entrepreneurship at the regional level? Second, if clusters are associated with different levels of entrepreneurship, what explains those differences? Third, what do the answers to the previous questions imply for academics and policy makers? To answer these questions, this paper distinguishes between clusters and industrial agglomerations and advances a theoretical model and empirical research to explain the impact of clusters on entrepreneurship at the regional level. This paper uses the 97 German planning regions as units of analysis to test the hypotheses. Using hypotheses testing and OLS fixed-effects model, this paper finds that clusters do have an impact on entrepreneurship at the regional level, but industrial agglomerations do not. Implications for academics and policy makers and suggestions for future research are given in the concluding section.
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In this article, we ask what is the place of institutional entrepreneurship in an (regional) innovation system. The main research questions addressed are (a) how does a new science-based concentration of innovation become institutionalized in an innovation system, (b) who are the institutional entrepreneurs and what do they actually do in their efforts to institutionalize new beliefs, practices and activities within a system, and (c) what knowledge institutional entrepreneurs do need and what kind of power do they exercise in the institutionalization process. We add new knowledge to studies focusing on innovation systems by revealing how new elements are attached into it. We also add power and knowledge to the study of institutional entrepreneurship and institutional change. The empirical analysis identifies the main phases of institutionalization, key actors in different phases and their strategies of influence. This paper is based on the analysis of secondary data and 28 interviews with key actors.
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Regional policies for entrepreneurship are currently going through a transition from increasing the quantity of entrepreneurship to the quality of entrepreneurship. The next step will be the transition from entrepreneurship policy towards policy for an entrepreneurial economy. The entrepreneurial ecosystem approach has been heralded as a new framework accommodating these transitions. This approach starts with the entrepreneurial actor, but emphasizes the context of productive entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is not only the output of the system, entrepreneurs are important players themselves in creating the ecosystem and keeping it healthy. This research briefing reviews the entrepreneurial ecosystem literature, its shortcomings, and provides a novel synthesis. The entrepreneurial ecosystem approach speaks directly to practitioners, but its causal depth and evidence base is rather limited. This article provides a novel synthesis including a causal scheme of how the framework and systemic conditions of the ecosystem lead to particular entrepreneurial activities as output of the ecosystem and new value creation as outcome of the ecosystem. In addition it provides a framework for analyzing the interactions between the elements within the ecosystem. This offers a much more rigorous and relevant starting point for subsequent studies into entrepreneurial ecosystems and the regional policy implications of these.
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The aim of this paper is to identify regions with industrial clusters in Germany and to analyse their entrepreneurial environment. A new index employing industry data supplied from the German Federal Labour Office is used to elaborate on spatial clusters in the most concentrated German industries. A second data set collected as part of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), serves to assess the relationship between regional clusters and entrepreneurial activities and attitudes. The paper tests the rather popular but hitherto seldomly empirically-proven hypothesis that the existence of one or several industrial cluster(s) in a region has a positive impact on the number of start-ups and attitudes in the very same region. The implications of the findings with respect to regional policies encouraging industrial clusters are discussed briefly in the concluding section.
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Although an increasing number of studies of technological, institutional and organizational change refer to the concepts of path dependence and path creation, few attempts have been made to consider these concepts explicitly in their methodological accounts. This paper addresses this gap and contributes to the literature by developing a comprehensive methodology that originates from the concepts of path dependence and path creation – path constitution analysis (PCA) – and allows for the integration of multi-actor constellations on multiple levels of analysis within a process perspective. Based upon a longitudinal case study in the field of semiconductors, we illustrate PCA ‘in action’ as a template for other researchers and critically examine its adequacy. We conclude with implications for further path-oriented inquiries.
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Vicente J. and Suire R. (2007) Informational cascades versus network externalities in locational choice: evidence of CT clusters formation and stability. Regional Studies 41, 1 The paper provides new insights into the mechanisms of nformation and communication technology (ICT) clusters formation. The basic assumption is that clusters can be explained as the result of a locational norm, i.e. as a convergence in locational choices resulting from both mimetic behaviours and sequential and cumulative interactions. Informational externalities (and observational learning) are distinguished from network externalities (and interactive learning) in location processes in order to compare the respective economic properties of stability (and proximity) of locational cascades and locational clusters. It is shown as a result that informational effects play a major role in the formation of ICT clusters, whereas network effects are the significant condition of their stability. Silicon Valley and Silicon Sentier...
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Studies on the impact of technological innovation on growth have been largely mute on the role of new firm formation. Using cross-sectional data on the 37 countries participating in GEM 2002, this paper uses an augmented Cobb-Douglas production to explore firm formation and technological innovation as separate determinants of growth. One area of interest is the contrast between different types of entrepreneurial activities as measured using GEM Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) rates - high growth potential TEA, necessity TEA, opportunity TEA and overall TEA. Of the four types of entrepreneurship, only high growth potential entrepreneurship is found to have a significant impact on economic growth. This finding is consistent with extant findings in the literature that it is fast growing new firms, not new firms in general, that accounted for most of the new job creation by small and medium enterprises in advanced countries.
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In this study, we examine the relationships between new ventures' ties with service intermediaries (i.e., technology service firms, accounting and financial service firms, law firms, and talent search firms) and their product innovation in the context of a technology cluster. Because service intermediaries sit at the intersection of many firms, organizations and industries, they maintain extensive networks in a cluster. We propose that new ventures' ties with service intermediaries enable the ventures to plug into these networks and contribute to the ventures' product innovation by broadening the scope of their external innovation search and reducing their search cost. Moreover, we argue that the positive relationships between new ventures' ties with service intermediaries and their product innovation will become stronger when search in the networks in the cluster is more important to the ventures' product innovation. Based upon a sample of new ventures in a technology cluster in China, our results support these arguments. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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