刘敏
, 许世远
LIU Min, XU Shiyuan
收稿日期: 2017-12-26
修回日期: 2018-01-19
网络出版日期: 2018-01-28
版权声明: 2018 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：刘敏(1963-),男,内蒙古自治区土左旗人,教授,博士,博士生导师,从事城市自然地理学与城市环境过程研究,E-mail: mliu@geo.ecnu.edu.cn。
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摘要
在全球快速城市化背景下,城市成为经济高速发展、人类活动高度集中、人地相互作用最强烈的区域,人工环境下“第二自然格局”的形成以及剧烈的城市土地利用/覆被变化效应使得城市自然地理学在城市复杂系统的研究中具有重要的理论和应用价值。本文通过对城市自然地理学的缘起、学科发展的综合分析,从学科理论体系、研究内容以及前沿发展领域等方面进行了论述,以期丰富和深化城市自然地理学研究内容,并进一步推动城市自然地理学的研究和发展。未来,城市自然地理学的研究应从以下方面开展：①关注基础理论研究,深化学科理论体系;②发展多学科的交叉视角,深化城市地表系统多要素变化研究;③聚焦城市自然—人文复杂系统,揭示自然和人文多要素间耦合机理及驱动机制;④拓宽城市服务应用领域的研究,提供城市可持续发展的多目标决策。
关键词：
Abstract
Due to the rapid urbanization in recent decades, globally cities have become the regions loaded with highly developed economy, dense population, and intensive human-environment interactions. Because of the formation of “the second pattern” in artificial environment and effects of intensive urban land use and land cover change, the discipline of urban physical geography has significant theoretical and practical values in the research of intricate urban systems. In this article, we reviewed the origin and disciplinary development of urban physical geography, and the theoretical framework, research contents, and outlooks for frontier research areas are clarified. We aimed to extend and enrich the research contents of urban physical geography, and promote its further development. In the future, prospective studies on urban physical geography should focus on the following areas: (1) theoretical studies for facilitating disciplinary development; (2) inter-disciplinary research for extending the knowledge base of urban surface system changes; (3) the giant urban physical-human system for revealing the coupling relationships and driving mechanisms of multiple urban elements; (4) applications in urban service research for supporting decisions of sustainable urban development.
Keywords：
城市是一个典型的自然—人文—社会—经济相互耦合的地域综合体,各自然地理要素具有变异性、界面多样性、过程复杂性等特征。尤其是20世纪后期以来,越来越多的人口进入城市,城市化作为最强烈的干扰形式,导致了全球气候变暖、土地荒漠化、热带雨林消退、物种减少等一系列全球性环境问题。由于人口、资源、环境、能源等全球性问题都集中反映在城市,使得城市对全球和区域环境变化的响应极为敏感,对地理环境演变所构成的压力、效应也更为突出,成为人地关系表现最为集中的地带。随着与外部系统之间交流的日益加强,城市化快速发展所伴生的大规模土地利用/覆被变化(Land Use and Cover Change, LUCC)已成为一种典型的人地系统相互作用过程和环境变化的重要驱动力,形成了有别于传统自然地理格局的现代城市自然地理“第二自然格局”,营造出过去没有的自然地理现象。例如,城市人工地貌的形成与不透水面积的增加使城市热场效应更为突出,一定程度上改变了原有的地带性规律;渠道化、没有河漫滩的城市河流的物质迁移规律和洪水泛滥行为不同于自然河流;不透水地面增加使地表径流增加迅速,形成典型的暴雨径流污染和受纳水体水质的恶化等。快速城市化使得地球表层系统由自然因素引发的环境变化转变为由人类因素引发的环境变化,陆续出现的一系列尖锐矛盾迫切需要及时的科学认识和解决之道;现代城市自然格局的出现,迫切需要对改变了的“第二自然格局”开展系统研究。
随着可持续发展问题的提出,越来越多的学者关注城市的自然地理问题。Bunge(1973)提出城市环境极其需要自然地理学;Douglas(1981)率先对城市中的自然地理环境进行描述,认为城市就像一种喀斯特地貌区,其地下管网所起的作用与南斯拉夫石灰岩溶洞别无二致,导致了一种干热的城市自然环境,尤其是在城市中心区;Cooke(1982)在《干旱区城市地貌学》一书中开始发展城市中自然地理学的应用方向研究,洛杉矶和其他许多城市研究都被收录在内。城市自然地理学(Urban Physical Geography)在国内的发展主要从部门城市自然地理学的形成开始,20世纪70年代,周淑贞教授就开展了城市气候研究,提出了著名的“城市气候五岛”理论,标志着城市自然地理学独立理论的出现。进入1980年代,严钦尚教授结合上海城市发展的需要,论证了金山古沙嘴的沉积演变过程,研制了第一幅上海市地貌类型图。1990年代,各部门自然地理学在城市研究中得到了广泛地应用,诸多城市自然地理要素的案例研究也散见于国内外主要学术著作,主要包括《城市气候学》(周淑贞等, 1994)、《城市水文学概论》(周乃晟等, 1995)、《应用地貌学》(陈业裕等, 1994)等。进入21世纪,许世远等(2004)编写的《上海城市自然地理图集》较全面地反映了上海市城市自然地理的要素图,体现了当时城市自然地理学的学科发展水平,是全面发展城市自然地理学的阶段性总结和新起点。至此,自然地理学各分支学科在城市的广泛应用和《上海城市自然地理图集》的出版,为城市自然地理学体系的构建打下了坚实的基础。
2006年,刘敏等(2006)首次提出了城市自然地理学的概念：城市自然地理学是以城市为研究区域,研究在人类驱动力机制下城市系统各自然要素时空变化特点、规律及演变过程、各要素之间相互耦合作用与驱动力机理,进而做出评价、模拟、预测和调控的学科。2009年,城市自然地理学作为一门单独学科正式纳入《2008-2009地理学学科发展报告(自然地理学)》(中国科学技术协会等, 2009)。
城市自然地理学的发展需要借鉴系统论、协同论等方法论学科的思想,同时地理信息科学等地学应用型学科为城市自然地理学的学科发展和深入研究提供了良好的技术支持。它的研究范围涉及地貌学、气象气候学、水文学、土壤学等自然学科,同时涉及经济学、社会学等人文学科,从学科性质上来说,它既是一个交叉学科,也是一个基础应用学科。
(1) 城市空间格局与动态演变特征
以城市LUCC的地表格局变化为切入点,分析城市化作用下城市复杂系统的格局演变特征,深刻认识城市不同地理格局演变的驱动力及其作用机理,加强自然地理过程与城市过程的耦合与互馈作用研究。
(2) 城市多物质循环过程及机理
在研究各物质时空分布特征与变化规律的同时,着重开展不同尺度的城市自然—人文复杂系统中多物质在多界面、多介质的自然过程研究,包括物理过程、化学过程、生物过程、生态过程及其循环机理,加强物质迁移转化规律和过程机理的研究,探索其动力学演变机制。
(3) 城市区域响应与模拟预测
聚焦城市巨系统中复杂的自然与人文要素耦合,探讨城市复杂系统对自然变异和人类活动的响应过程及其反馈机理,基于地理信息技术,综合多源数据,构建高精度模型对城市自然—人文耦合系统的响应和反馈进行预测。
(1) 与综合自然地理学的关系
城市自然地理学与综合自然地理学均为自然地理学范畴内的重要分支学科。然而,两者又存在差异,综合自然地理学是在部门自然地理学的基础上对自然地理环境整体进行系统的综合研究,以自然综合体为研究单元(许学工等, 2009),重自然过程而轻人类活动的作用。而城市自然地理学研究的是城市自然—人文耦合系统,以城市水—土—气—生—人文社会复合体系为研究单元(表1),不仅对自然地理环境整体进行系统的综合研究,更强调在城市化过程中,人类活动对自然地理要素的影响及其耦合作用与互馈机制,自然要素和人文要素缺一不可。
表1 城市自然地理学与相关学科的对比
Tab.1 Comparison of urban physical geography with related subjects
| 分类 | 综合自然地理学 | 城市地理学 | 城市生态学 | 城市自然地理学 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 学科性质 | 基础学科 | 基础应用学科 | 交叉、应用学科 | 交叉、应用学科 |
| 研究对象 | 地球表面或城市区域自然地理环境整体 | 城市区域 | 城市生态系统 | 城市自然-人文耦合系统 |
| 研究单元 | 自然综合体 | 城市要素(自然-人文) | 人类聚集区内的生物、人工结构和物理环境 | 城市水-土-气-生-人文社会复合体系 |
| 研究内容 | 综合自然要素本身时空分布的特点、规律;或城市特殊区域综合要素的变化等 | 城市系统中人文、社会要素特点、规律 | 城市生物群落与人类社会,生物过程与社会经济过程之间的相互联系及相互作用 | 城市复杂系统中人与自然多圈层要素相互作用的过程和机制及城市自然-人文要素的耦合作用与互馈机制研究 |
| 研究视角 | 注重考虑自然过程下的自然综合体一般分布特点和规律,强调原生(环境)格局 | 考虑人类活动影响,也注意自然–人为的协调作用,强调城市区域扩展或城市化进程特点 | 注重城市尺度、人类活动影响下生物种群、群落变动及其各组分之间的关系 | 强调人类活动影响,注重人为扰动作用与后果,特别强调“第二格局”(人工环境) |
| 目标任务 | 回答是什么?整体要素变化的后果是什么? | 回答为什么? | 回答变化的后果怎样? | 回答变化的后果怎样? 如何应对? |
(2) 与城市地理学的关系
城市自然地理学与传统的城市地理学同为区域性学科,但研究对象和侧重点不同(表1)。城市地理学主要偏重于人文和经济现象,而城市自然地理学则同时兼顾自然和人为要素,注重于人为因素扰动下的城市自然地理过程的机制及调控研究。
(3) 与城市生态学的关系
城市自然地理学与新兴的城市生态学均是以城市为研究区域的交叉、应用学科,均强调人类活动的影响,但城市生态学主要以城市生态系统为研究对象,聚焦城市生物群落与人类社会,缺少对城市自然地理学中重要的自然地理要素变化研究,缺乏对城市自然—人文系统耦合过程及机理的探讨。
2.1.1 城市系统格局演变
土地利用/土地覆被变化是城市化最重要的表现形式,因此,城市自然地理学主要通过开展土地覆被变化研究以及土地利用变化驱动力研究探讨城市系统的格局演变及其影响机制。许多学者利用各种遥感图像对城市LUCC过程进行了深入的解译和研究(Wentz et al, 2008; Sarwar et al, 2016),探究了土地利用变化驱动力及其对土地利用变化的影响(刘纪远等, 2014; Mousazadeh et al, 2015)。此外,由于城市是一个复杂的动力学系统,人类活动和城市环境之间不断进行相互作用相互影响,各国学者开始聚焦城市LUCC对城市环境变化的影响。例如,Cui等(2012)分析了纯林地、草地、道路、房屋等不同下垫面的辐射平衡各分量的特征,揭示了城市扩展过程中常见的林地转道路、草地转道路、草地转房屋等土地利用变化类型的净辐射都呈现持续增加态势,城市扩张过程伴随着辐射能量收入的连续增加;Feng等(2014)基于1987-2007年厦门市TM和ETM+影像图,研究发现快速城市LUCC效应强烈改变了城市下垫面的热力属性,形成了城市热岛效应;Huang等(2017)探讨了城市河网沉积物中多环芳烃(PAHs)累积过程,揭示了不同土地利用类型对PAHs积累过程具有显著影响差异,交通用地和商业区贡献了更多的PAHs来源。
2.1.2 城市多物质循环过程
城市环境系统的自然地理要素多变性、环境界面多样性以及物质迁移过程复杂性使得城市环境中的各介质都具备了城市的特征,其对各种物质的累积和传输过程也不同于自然环境。目前,在城市多物质(如营养盐、重金属和持久性有机污染物(POPs)的多介质时空演变特征及其源–汇演变规律方面研究已积累了大量的经验。例如,常静等(2009)探讨了重金属在城市地表灰尘—降雨径流系统中的环境行为及其生物有效性变化,结果表明从地表灰尘到径流颗粒物,重金属生物有效性明显升高;Neary等(2011)对美国城市环境中PAHs迁移机制的研究表明,PAHs主要的赋存形态是固相,且PAHs主要富集在河流沉积物和悬浮颗粒物中,城市环境中大气—土壤—水体是PAHs环境迁移的关键途径;Xiong等(2016)通过定量表征广州城市土壤、蔬菜和大气颗粒物中重金属含量,探讨了土壤-植物-大气多介质中物质循环过程,指出叶类蔬菜中重金属的富集多来自于大气,土壤理化性质能影响蔬菜中重金属污染水平;Cetin等(2016)研究了伊斯坦布尔大气和土壤中PAHs和多氯联苯(PCBs)浓度水平及迁移机制,逸散系数结果表明PAHs和PCBs的挥发性和温度决定了其源-汇趋势。
2.1.3 城市化与城市自然灾害
快速城市化伴生的不透水面的增加,改变了城市地域的水分平衡,使地表径流增加迅速,加剧了城市洪涝灾害频率和风险。刘敏等(2012, 2016)聚焦上海暴雨内涝、台风/风暴潮、海平面上升等问题,研究了不同危险性情境下暴雨内涝地表积水模拟,对台风风暴潮灾害风险进行了评估,提出了台风风暴潮的空间应对措施及避灾建议;Yin等(2016)基于高分辨率淹水模型和洪水深度测量,评估上海洪水淹没对中心城区道路交通网的影响和风险,结果显示,洪水淹没范围的扩大与城市道路交通网的破坏响应之间呈现出非线性的关系;郑江禹等(2017)采用Mann-Kendal趋势检验等方法,分析了珠江流域的城市极端降水特征,探讨了流域城市极端降水变化特征的机理,发现温度升高对珠江流域极端降水过程有显著影响。
2.1.4 城市系统耦合模拟与预测
随着对城市各介质中物质循环的研究不断深入,学者开始注重探索和深入物质迁移转化的多介质模型研究。例如,汪祖丞等(2011)构建了上海城市多介质逸度模型,模拟了稳态假设下PAHs在大气、水体、沉积物和植物中的浓度分布,结果表明大气直接排放输入是PAHs进入环境的主要途径,平流输出是其在系统中损失的主要途径;Xu等(2013)开发了定量水—空气—沉积物相互作用模型(QWASI),对京津冀城市圈水体中PAHs的迁移和转化进行了模拟,结果表明植物对PAHs的生物蓄积量是鱼类的4倍,并且PAHs从大气到水体再到沉积物进行迁移,高分子量PAHs排放受温度影响显著。此外,部分学者开始对不同的多介质模型进行耦合,实现城市环境过程的精细模拟和预测。例如,Csiszar等(2013)将城市多介质模型(MUM)和大气边界层预测模型(BLFMAPS)进行耦合,建立了具有空间分辨率的多介质归趋模型(SO-MUM),较为精确地估算了多伦多城市物质排放和归趋行为。
近年来,随着地理信息科学技术的进步,学者们开始在对LUCC驱动力机制研究的基础上,逐步构建了城市LUCC驱动模型,探究城市LUCC响应机制,预测城市发展趋势。例如,Li等(2013)基于1989-2005年上海市的景观指标和遥感数据,分析了上海大都市区的时空动态变化,结果表明上海的城市扩张表现出一种外向的波动模式,其城市化沿着农村和城市之间复杂的扩散—集聚模式进行;Yao等(2016)基于雨水管理模式(SWMM),耦合城市LUCC、总不透水面(TIA)和直接连通不透水面(DCIA),研究其对总径流深度、洪峰径流深度和滞留时间影响,结果表明TIA是影响总径流的主要因子,而DCIA对径流滞留时间有重要影响;Liu等(2018)将城市群空间的土地利用结构作为研究对象,提出了城市集聚空间中不同土地利用类型之间关系的分形测度方法,建立了基于灰色预测理论的城市群土地利用结构的客观预测模型,实现了城市群空间土地利用结构的预测;Yang等(2018)基于土地利用回归模型(LUR),耦合上海城市LUCC与湖泊表层沉积物物质浓度,发现沉积物中物质浓度跟城市化作用强度表现出良好正相关关系,与土地利用活动相关的能源消耗明显促进了城市沉积物环境中物质的积累。
在全球变化背景下,作为支撑全球变化研究的战略措施之一,2014年启动的“未来地球计划”(Future Earth),和“国际全球环境变化人文因素计划”(International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change, IHDP)于2005年启动的“城市化与全球变化”(Urbanization and Global Environmental Change, U-GEC)研究等一系列国际计划项目,均明确提出以城市区域研究为着眼点。城市LUCC驱动下的物质生物地球化学循环与生态效应,成为当前多学科联合攻关研究的重要内容和当今城市自然地理学研究的新核心问题之一。
因此,在全球变化新背景以及近年来开展的一系列实证研究,基于地球系统科学思想,城市自然地理学学科体系得到了进一步的完善与发展。城市自然地理学是以城市复杂巨系统中自然–人文耦合系统为研究对象,围绕人为活动引起的、变化的城市地表系统中自然地理多要素性质、演化特点及多介质物质循环过程、响应机制开展研究,重点探讨城市复杂巨系统中自然—人文耦合作用及机理,从综合的角度加深对人—地复杂系统全面而综合的理解,最终将成果应用于城市可持续发展与管理决策,谋求城市区域人—地关系协调发展之路的学科(图1)。
综上所述,目前城市问题的不断出现和自然地理学各分支学科在城市的广泛应用,为城市自然地理学的发展提供了良好的背景和发展基础,今后城市自然地理学将着眼于城市复杂系统对自然变异和人类活动的响应过程和反馈机理以及全球变化对城市可持续发展的影响和对策,坚持综合观点,注重理论研究与自然—人文系统耦合,促进学科应用,不断丰富城市自然地理学内涵,深化学科理论体系,促进学科向更高层次的发展。
城市自然地理学是一门高度融合多学科交叉以及研究领域广泛的学科,只有不断加强基础理论的研究才能守住自己的阵地,并继续为社会发展做贡献。因此,未来学科发展应以人—地关系的调控原理作为学科理论基础,以城市化进程中的自然地理问题为研究重点,不断完善和深化城市自然地理学的研究内容、方法和体系,以适应并促进未来城市自然地理学的发展。
以地球系统科学理论为指导,以地理信息科学、地理计算与模拟等先进观测技术与实验手段为支撑,加强地理学、环境学、生态学、信息科学和社会科学等学科的综合集成,从经验科学走向实验科学,从宏观进入微观开展城市地表系统变化研究。在微观尺度上加强城市自然地理格局背景下物质循环机理方面的深入研究,在宏观尺度上对已有资料和成果进行系统集成,向模型系统集成应用发展;尤其要注重多模型相互耦合模拟,深入探讨动态开放的城市复杂巨系统中多要素、多介质、多界面环境物质在城市剧烈变化背景下的关键过程及其响应机制,为全球环境变化的城市响应提供实证数据和理论依据。
在创立之初,地理学就是研究自然和人文科学交叉界面的综合性学科,也是连接科学与社会的桥梁。城市作为人类活动的主要聚居场所,为自然—人文—社会—经济相互耦合的综合体。因此,城市自然地理学的研究应加强城市系统中自然—人文系统的耦合,运用地理科学的系统视角与科学工具分析和理解当今城市面临的重大问题,重点研究各要素的相互作用及其耦合与联动,发展面向预测的多要素耦合的城市系统模式,以综合的角度加深对人—地复杂系统全面而综合的理解,实现系统综合与耦合,服务国家重大战略。
在全球变化的趋势及其影响日益显著的背景下,城市自然地理学作为一门基础应用学科,迫切需要不断发展多技术手段的融合,发展格局与过程耦合的观点和技术路线,开展以城市可持续发展为目标的多风险预警和多目标决策,以调控和提升并不断拓宽学科应用在城市可持续发展中的功能。因此,未来应：①完善不同时期城市复杂系统中多物质归趋行为的动态模拟预测,推演多物质时空变化对城市土地利用/覆被变化的响应机制,空间表达城市污染物污染风险与人群暴露格局,促进城市生态系统的良性循环;②综合城市环境和灾害问题研究,构建全方位的城市灾害监控和模拟、灾害风险评估、灾害应急管理与灾害防御体系,提出城市应对突发公共事件的空间对策、实施路径、综合应急响应机制建议,探寻城市可持续发展和公共安全的保障途径;③研究城市地表信息的发生、传播、表达机理,反演各种地表时空过程的参数和机制,建立描述和解释地表时空过程的空间信息分析理论,系统模型与虚拟现实技术的结合实现虚拟和操作,基于云存储、云计算、智能统计分析,更好地整合城市自然地理大数据,并从中发现空间联系、挖掘地理信息,进一步促进“数字城市”和“智慧城市”建设。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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Simulation of multimedia fate of PAHs in Shanghai city [J].
利用城市多介质逸度模型模拟了稳态假设下上海城区16种PAHs在大气、水体、沉积物和植物等中的浓度分布,与实测值进行对比,并根据模拟结果计算了相间迁移通量.结果表明,大气直接排放输入是PAHs进入环境的主要途径,迁移过程包括扩散、沉降和侵蚀等,平流输出是其在系统中损失的主要途径;土壤和沉积物是PAHs主要的汇(占94.4%),其在不透水层上覆盖的膜中浓度达到最大(156g/m3),PAHs在沉积物和土壤中停留时间最长;随着环数的增加, PAHs在水体、植被和土壤中的降解损失所占比例从2.3%逐渐增加至48.9%,而在大气中的降解损失则从91.5%减少至4.0%.模型计算浓度与实测浓度吻合较好,验证了模型的可靠性,并通过灵敏度分析,确定了模型的关键参数.
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综合自然地理学及相关的景观生态学是自然地理学的重要分支学科。本文综述了近年来综合自然地理学在学术和应用方面取得的重要进展,由3部分组成:(1)学科发展回顾;(2)近今主要进展,包括在基础研究理论与方法技术方面的学科进展和研究成果应用方面的贡献;(3)学科未来展望,包括机遇与挑战分析和重点研究领域。综合自然地理学的未来发展应注意以下方面:进一步促进更高层次的综合与集成,加强多学科间的交叉融合,共同探究地表系统复杂性问题及机制;进一步提高观测技术和模型模拟的水平,以解决空间与时间上更为复杂的生物地理过程和格局问题;进一步拓展应用领域,为国家资源、环境和社会经济的可持续发展提供科技支持。
Recent progress and prospect of integrated physical geography in China [J].https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2009.09.001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
综合自然地理学及相关的景观生态学是自然地理学的重要分支学科。本文综述了近年来综合自然地理学在学术和应用方面取得的重要进展,由3部分组成:(1)学科发展回顾;(2)近今主要进展,包括在基础研究理论与方法技术方面的学科进展和研究成果应用方面的贡献;(3)学科未来展望,包括机遇与挑战分析和重点研究领域。综合自然地理学的未来发展应注意以下方面:进一步促进更高层次的综合与集成,加强多学科间的交叉融合,共同探究地表系统复杂性问题及机制;进一步提高观测技术和模型模拟的水平,以解决空间与时间上更为复杂的生物地理过程和格局问题;进一步拓展应用领域,为国家资源、环境和社会经济的可持续发展提供科技支持。
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Istanbul, one of the mega cities in the world located between Asia and Europe, has suffered from severe air pollution problems due to rapid population growth, traffic and industry. Atmospheric levels of PAHs and PCBs were investigated in Istanbul at 22 sampling sites during four different sampling periods using PUF disk passive air samplers and spatial and temporal variations of these chemicals were determined. Soil samples were also taken at the air sampling sites. At all sites, the average ambient air Σ 15 PAH and Σ 41 PCB concentrations were found as 85.6±68.3ngm 613 and 246±122pgm 613 , respectively. Phenanthrene and anthracene were the predominant PAHs and low molecular weight congeners dominated the PCBs. The PAH concentrations were higher especially at urban sites close to highways. However, the PCBs showed moderately uniform spatial variations. Except four sites, the PAH concentrations were increased with decreasing temperatures during the sampling period, indicating the contributions of combustion sources for residential heating, while PCB concentrations were mostly increased with the temperature, probably due to enhanced volatilization at higher temperatures from their sources. The results of the Factor Analysis represented the impact of traffic, petroleum, coal/biomass and natural gas combustion and medical waste incineration plants on ambient air concentrations. A similar spatial distribution trend was observed in the soil samples. Fugacity ratio results indicated that the source/sink tendency of soil for PAHs and PCBs depends on their volatility and temperature; soil generally acts as a source for lighter PAHs and PCBs particularly in higher temperatures while atmospheric deposition is a main source for higher molecular weight compounds in local soils. Toxicological effect studies also revealed the severity of air and soil pollution especially in terms of PAHs in Istanbul.
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So-mum: A coupled atmospheric transport and multimedia model used to predict intraurban-scale PCB and PBDE emissions and fate [J].https://doi.org/10.1021/es3033023 URL PMID: 23190380 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A spatially resolved, dynamic version of the Multimedia Urban Model (MUM) and the boundary layer forecast and air pollution transport model BLFMAPS were coupled to build Spatially Oriented MUM (SO-MUM), to estimate emissions and fate of POPs in an urban area on a 5 5 km(2) cell resolution. SO-MUM was used to back-calculate emissions from spatially resolved measured air concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs in Toronto, Canada. Estimated emissions of (88)PCBs were 230 (40-480) kg y(-1), 280 (50-580) g y(-1) km(-2), or 90 (16-190) mg y(-1) capita(-1), and (26)PBDEs were 28 (6-63) kg y(-1), 34 (7-77) g y(-1) km(-2), or 11 (2-25) mg y(-1) capita(-1). A mass inventory of penta- and octa-BDEs in Toronto was estimated to be 200 tonnes (90-1000 tonnes) or 80 (40-400) g capita(-1). Using this estimate and that of 440 (280-800) tonnes of PCBs, estimated emissions of (88)PCBs and (26)PBDEs per mass of chemical inventory in Toronto were 0.5 (0.05-1.6) and 0.1 (0.01-0.7) g y(-1) kg(-1), respectively. The results suggest annual emission rates of 0.04% and 0.01% from the mass inventories with downtown accounting for 30% and 16% of Toronto's chemical inventory and emissions of PCBs and PBDEs, respectively. Since total PBDE emissions are a function of mass inventory, which is proportional to building volume, we conclude that building volume can be used as a proxy to predict emissions. Per mass inventory emission rates were negatively related to vapor pressure within a compound class, but not consistently when considering all compound congeners.
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Modeling the radiation balance of different urban underlying surfaces [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-011-4933-x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
An urban net all-wave radiation parameterization scheme is evaluated using annual datasets for 2010 recorded at a Beijing urban observation site.The statistical relationship between observed data and simulation data of net radiation has a correlation coefficient of 0.98 and model efficiency of 0.93.Therefore,it can be used to simulate the radiation balance of Beijing.This study analyzes the variation in the radiation balance for different underlying surfaces.To simulate radiation balance differences,we set four pure land-cover types(forest,grass,roads,and buildings).Keeping all other conditions inputted unchanged,we model the radiation balance by changing the land-cover type.The results show that the effects of different underlying surfaces on radiation differ,and that there is much upward long-wave radiation,accounting for 84.3% of the total radiation energy falling incident on the land surface.The annual averages of net radiation for the four land-cover types are in the range of 38.2-53.4 W/m2.The net radiation of the grass surface is minimal while that of the roads surface is maximal.Additionally,with urbanization the net radiation values of common types of land-cover change,such as conversion from forest to roads,grass to roads,and grass to buildings,all have increasing trends,indicating that net radiation usually increases with urban sprawl.
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The city as an ecosystem [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/030913338100500301 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Understanding of the dynamics of the biophysical components of the city and the way their functioning impinges on people is a vital part of urban studies. In this paper, the city as a habitat for human beings, and for plants and other animals, will be examined to determine
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Using land use change trajectories to quantify the effects of urbanization on urban heat island [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2013.11.028 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This paper proposed a quantitative method of land use change trajectory, which means the succession among different land use types across time, to examine the effects of urbanization on an urban heat island (UHI). To accomplish this, multi-temporal images from Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM) and Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) of Xiamen City in China from 1987 to 2007 were selected. First, the land use change trajectories were extracted based on the classified images from different years. Then the land surface temperatures (LST) were retrieved and the magnitudes of the UHI were evaluated using the UHI intensity (UHII) indicator. Finally, the indices of the contribution to UHI intensity (CUHII) were constructed and calculated to quantify the effects of each land use change trajectory on the UHI during urbanization. The results demonstrated that the land use change trajectories and CUHII are effective and useful in quantifying the effects of urbanization on UHI. In Xiamen City, a total of 2218 land use change trajectories were identified and 530 of them were the existing urban or urbanization trajectories. The UHII presents a trend of continuous increase from 0.83 C in 1987 to 2.14 C in 2007. With respect to the effects of urban growth on UHI, the contribution of existing urban area to UHI decreased during urbanization. Prior to 2007, the existing urban area of trajectory NO. 44444 had the most significant effect on UHI with the greatest CUHII, while the value has decreased from 55.00% in 1987 to 13.03% in 2007 because of the addition of new urbanized area. In 2007, the greatest CUHII was replaced by a trajectory from farmland to built-up area (NO. 22224) with the CUHII of 21.98%, followed by the existing urban area of trajectory NO. 44444 with the CUHII of 13.03%. These results provide not only a new methodology to assess the environmental effects of urbanization, but also decision-supports for the planning and management of cities.
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Characterization and source apportionment of PAHs from a highly urbanized river sediments based on land use analysis [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.117 URL PMID: 28679154 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract The city-scale land use/land cover change derived by urbanization on the fates of PAHs is of great concerns recently. This study evaluated spatiotemporal variations and sources of PAHs from a highly urbanized river sediments in the Huangpu River, Shanghai. Results indicated that the concentrations of PAHs in the sediments varied greatly across locations and seasons. The concentration of Σ 16 PAHs in the dry season were 6 times higher than that in wet season. The mainstream and midstream of the Huangpu River were identified as the hotspots in both dry and wet seasons. However, 4-ring PAH compounds were dominated, contributing 42.41%02±026.81% and 44.7002±027.73% in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Multivariate statistical and land use analysis suggested that the main sources of PAHs derived from the cultivation, traffic and commercial activities. Buffer radii (<75002m) area with cultivated land, road/street and transportation and commercial and business facilities contributed significantly the PAHs in the sediment of the Huangpu River. Population density was also an important variable regulating the PAHs concentrations less than 75002m in the wet season. Risk assessment results revealed that the PAHs toxicity in the sediments was higher in dry season than in wet season. Overall, severe land use changes caused by rapid urbanization can contribute more amount of PAHs emission and complicated sources of PAHs, thus provide insights into the importance of land use types in indicating PAHs source. Copyright 08 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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Spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization in Shanghai, China between 1989 and 2005 [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-013-9901-1 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Quantifying the spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization is necessary to understand urban morphology and its impacts on biodiversity and ecological processes, and thus can provide essential information for improving landscape and urban planning. Recent studies have suggested that, as cities evolve, certain general patterns emerge along the urban–rural gradient although individual cities always differ in details. To help better understand these generalities and idiosyncrasies in urbanization patterns, we analyzed the spatiotemporal dynamics of the Shanghai metropolitan area from 1989 to 2005, based on landscape metrics and remote sensing data. Specifically, the main objectives of our study were to quantitatively characterize the spatiotemporal patterns of urbanization in Shanghai in recent decades, identify possible spatial signatures of different land use types, and test the diffusion coalescence hypotheses of urban growth. We found that, similar to numerous cities around the world reported in previous studies, urbanization increased the diversity, fragmentation, and configurational complexity of the urban landscape of Shanghai. In the same time, however, the urban–rural patterns of several land use types in Shanghai seem unique—quite different from previously reported patterns. For most land use types, each showed a distinctive spatial pattern along a rural–urban transect, as indicated by landscape metrics. Furthermore, the urban expansion of Shanghai exhibited an outward wave-like pattern. Our results suggest that the urbanization of Shanghai followed a complex diffusion–coalescence pattern along the rural–urban transect and in time.
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Predictive measurement of the structure of land use in an urban agglomeration space [J].
The scientific measurement of land use in space is an essential task in urban agglomeration studies, and the fractal feature is one of the most powerful tools for describing the phenomenon of space. However, previous research on the fractal feature of land use has mostly been conducted in urban space, and examines the fractal feature of different land use types, respectively; thus, the measurement of the relationship between different land use types was not realized. Meanwhile, previous prediction methods used for spatial land use mostly relied on subjective abstraction of the evolution, theoretically, regardless of whether they were calibrated, so that complete coverage of all the mechanisms could not be guaranteed. Based on this, here, we treat the land use structure in urban agglomeration space as the research object, and attempt to establish a fractal measure method for the relationship between different land use types in the space of urban agglomeration. At the same time, we use the allometric relationship between “entirety” and “local” to establish an objective forecast model for the land use structure in urban agglomeration space based on gray prediction theory, to achieve a predictive measurement of the structure of land use in urban agglomeration space. Finally, this study applied the methods on the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei urban agglomeration to analyze the evolution of the stability of the structure of land use and achieve predictive measurement of the structure of land use. The results of the case study show that the methods proposed in this study can obtain the measurement of the relationship between different land use types and the land use prediction that does not depend on the subjective exploration of the evolution law. Compared with the measurement methods that analyzed the fractal feature of different land types, respectively, and the prediction methods that rely on subjective choice, the methods presented in this study recaps some innovations and reference values for relevant future research.
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| [24] |
Land use change detection and impact assessment in Anzali international coastal wetland using multi-temporal satellite images [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4900-0 URL PMID: 26614306 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract Anzali is one of the 18 Iranian wetlands of international importance listed in Ramsar Convention. This unique ecosystem in the world with high ecological diversity is highly threatened by various factors such as pollutants, sedimentation, unauthorized development of urban infrastructure, over-harvesting of wetland resources, land use changes, and invasive species. Among which, one of the most challenging destructive factors, land use change, was scrutinized in this study. For this, remotely sensed data and Geographical Information System (GIS) were used to detect land changes and corresponding impacts on the study area over a 38-year period from 1975 to 2013.. Changes in the study area were traced in five dominant land-use classes at four time intervals of 1975, 1989, 2007, and 2013. Accordingly, changes in different categories were quantified using satellite images. The methodology adopted in this study includes an integrated approach of supervised classification, zonal and object-oriented image analyses. According to the Kappa coefficient of 0.84 for the land use map of 2013, the overall accuracy of the method was estimated at 89%, which indicated that this method can be useful for monitoring and behavior analysis of other Iranian wetlands. The obtained results revealed extensive land use changes over the study period. As the results suggest, between the years 1975 to 2013, approximately 6500 ha (09080469%) rangeland area degraded. Further, urban and agricultural areas have been extended by 2982 ha (09080474%) and 2228 ha (0908046%), respectively. This could leave a negative impact on water quality of the wetland.
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| [25] |
The fate of the aqueous phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction in a detention pond system [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.04.046 URL PMID: 21636191 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The concentration of dissolved polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in influent, effluent, and within a detention pond system was measured. The "soluble fraction" was operationally defined as the PAHs in solution that passed through a 1.2 m filter. The results show that influent and effluent PAH concentrations were similar, indicating that dissolved PAH moved essentially unhindered through the detention pond system. In general, low molecular weight PAH were present at the highest concentrations and the highest PAH concentrations were measured in Summer. Also, year-to-year variations in PAH concentration were observed. At the end of sufficiently large storms, the pond was comparably unpolluted. During dry periods, the dissolved PAH concentration rose, possibly due to evapoconcentration and by partitioning of PAH from trapped contaminated sediment in the detention pond system. This study provides evidence that aqueous-phase PAH concentrations in runoff water were relatively unaffected by the passage through a conventional detention pond system.
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| [26] |
Urban land use change analysis using RS and GIS in Sulakbahar ward in Chittagong city, Bangladesh [J].https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2016.71001 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
An exhaustive field studywas undertaken between November 2011 and August 2012, with the aim to know thecauses of the environmental deterioration of the Tecomate Lagoon, in theGuerrero state, Mexico. Data of temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinityparameters and depth of the lagoon were interpolated using the Kriginggeostatistical method to generate a prediction surface. The lagoon registered agreat variation in its saline concentration, which ranged from 8.0 to 65.0 ppt,with the lowest values in November 2011 and the highest at May 2012. The greatvariability in the salinity throughout the year contributed in significant formto the lagoon instability. An average water temperature of 32?C and dissolvedoxygen levels of 4.49 to 7.44 mg/L were recorded. The low depth registered inthe lagoon (mean = 1 m), is related to fluvial and marine processes, both ofwhich modify depth through the transport of sediment to its interior.Currently, fishing is scarce, with the mangrove forest in some areas in aprocess of deterioration due to a lack of moisture. The lagoon system isundergoing a process of environmental deterioration, with an advanced ecologicalsuccession and non-aquatic vegetable species colonizing the area surroundingthe lagoon.
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| [27] |
Expert system classification of urban land use/cover for Delhi, India [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160801905497 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
This study presents the results of classifying land use/land cover for Delhi, India using an expert system approach. For this study Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data of 22 September 2003 were used. The research goals of this project are two‐fold. In one respect, the research goal is to report on the extent covered by urbanization using the classified image. Thirteen different land‐cover categories were identified with an 85.55% overall classification accuracy based on 256 random points for validation and 50 on the ground observations. Secondly, we report on our efforts to duplicate an expert system model previously developed for Phoenix Arizona as a generalized approach for urban land use classification. Results suggest that while some of the methodology could be duplicated, there are local factors (e.g. data availability and specific land features) that required the approach to be modified.
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| [28] |
Measurement of metal bioaccessibility in vegetables to improve human exposure assessments: Field study of soil-plant-atmosphere transfers in urban areas, South China [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-016-9796-2 URL PMID: 26825060 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract The quality of cultivated consumed vegetables in relation to environmental pollution is a crucial issue for urban and peri-urban areas, which host the majority of people at the global scale. In order to evaluate the fate of metals in urban soil-plant-atmosphere systems and their consequences on human exposure, a field study was conducted at two different sites near a waste incinerator (site A) and a highway (site B). Metal concentrations were measured in the soil, settled atmospheric particulate matter (PM) and vegetables. A risk assessment was performed using both total and bioaccessible metal concentrations in vegetables. Total metal concentrations in PM were (mg0002kg -1 ): (site A) 417 Cr, 354 Cu, 931 Zn, 6.3 Cd and 168 Pb; (site B) 145 Cr, 444 Cu, 3289 Zn, 2.9 Cd and 396 Pb. Several total soil Cd and Pb concentrations exceeded China's Environmental Quality Standards. At both sites, there was significant metal enrichment from the atmosphere to the leafy vegetables (correlation between Pb concentrations in PM and leaves: r0002=00020.52, p0002<00020.05) which depended on the plant species. Total Cr, Cd and Pb concentrations in vegetables were therefore above or just under the maximum limit levels for foodstuffs according to Chinese and European Commission regulations. High metal bioaccessibility in the vegetables (60-790002%, with maximum value for Cd) was also observed. The bioaccessible hazard index was only above 1 for site B, due to moderate Pb and Cd pollution from the highway. In contrast, site A was considered as relatively safe for urban agriculture.
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| [29] |
Multimedia fate modeling of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Lake Small Baiyangdian, Northern China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2012.04.010 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A QWASI (Quantitative Water Air Sediment Interaction) fugacity model was developed to characterize the fate and transfer of fifteen priority PAHs in Lake Small Baiyangdian. The PAH concentrations in the air (air, particulates), water (water, suspended solids, plants and fishes) and sediment (water and solids) as well as the transfer fluxes between adjacent compartments were derived under the steady-state assumption. Sensitivities of the model estimates to input parameters were tested. Monte Carlo simulation was conducted for the uncertainty analysis. The results indicate that there was generally good agreement between the modeled and measured concentrations with the differences within an order of magnitude for the majority of PAH components. The fluxes into and out of the lake as well as each compartment were well-balanced. The average bioaccumulation flux of PAHs by plants was four times higher than that by fishes. The transfer directions of PAHs were from air to water and to sediment. Temperature was the most influential parameter, and was more sensitive to the modeled concentrations of middle- and high-molecular-weight PAHs that were considered as the source of the model uncertainty. The model developed in this study could well characterize the fate and transfer of PAHs in the lake. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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| [30] |
Modeling and evaluating spatial variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban lake surface sediments in Shanghai [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.032 URL PMID: 29274532 [本文引用: 1] 摘要
To explore the influence of rapid urbanization development on the accumulation of 16 priority PAHs in urban environment, thirty-three surface sediments from city lakes in different urbanized areas of Shanghai were collected to evaluate the occurrence characteristic and source apportionment of PAHs. The concentrations of Σ 16 PAHs in lake surface sediments ranged from 55.7 to 492862ng62g 611 with a mean value of 113162ng62g 611 (standard deviation, 122862ng62g 611 ), of which 4-, 5- and 6-ring PAHs were the dominant components. Spatial distribution of PAHs in lake surface sediments showed a significantly declining trend along with a decreasing urbanization gradient (one-way ANOVA, p 62<62.05). Two hotspots of sediment PAHs were mainly distributed at highly urbanized areas with intensive population density and heavy traffic activities and at burgeoning industrial towns in the suburb. Source apportionment of total PAHs identified by a constrained positive matrix factorization model revealed that vehicle emission and combustion of coal, biomass and natural gas were the absolutely predominant sources, respectively accounting for 55.0% and 40.45% of total PAHs burden in lake sediments. Land use regression (LUR) models were successfully developed to evaluate spatial variation of PAHs contamination in urban sediments based on their significant correlations with residential land, commercial land, traffic variables, industrial sources, and population density. All PAH compounds showed strong associations with one or two source indicators (the traffic congestion index and the number of industrial sources), with the fitting R 2 varying from 0.529 to 0.984. Our findings suggest that energy consumption related to land use activities obviously promoted PAH accumulations in urban sediment environment during rapid development of urbanization and industrialization in Shanghai.
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| [31] |
How does imperviousness impact the urban rainfall-runoff process under various storm cases [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.08.041 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Dramatic changes in imperviousness exert significant influence on the rainfall-runoff process in urban catchments. In urban rainwater management, imperviousness is generally adopted as an effective indicator for assessing potential runoff risk. However, the effects of imperviousness on rainfall-runoff at the scale of small urbanized drainage areas have not been fully determined, particularly when various storm characteristics are considered. In this paper, a model-based analysis is conducted in a typical urban residential catchment in Beijing, China, in which 69 subareas are delineated within the catchment as the basic drainage units. Two metrics, total impervious area (TIA) and directly connected impervious area (DCIA), are employed to quantify the spatial characteristics of imperviousness of the subareas. Three runoff variables within the delineated subareas including total runoff depth ( Q t ), peak runoff depth ( Q p ), and lag time ( T lag ) are simulated by using the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) to represent the specific rainfall-runoff characteristics. Moreover, model input storms are designated to several typical flood-induced rainfall events with varying amounts, locations of rainfall peak, and durations for holistic assessment of imperviousness. Regression analyses are conducted to explore the contributions and relative significances of impervious metrics in predicting runoff variables under various storm cases. The results indicate that the performances of imperviousness with fine spatial scale (34 mm) may vary markedly according to storm conditions. Specifically, TIA rather than DCIA acts as a dominate factor affecting total runoff, and its significance maintains relatively stable with various storm conditions. In addition, the combined use of both TIA and DCIA are more effective for predicting peak runoff than that using a single impervious metric; however, rainfall amount, peak location, and duration alter the contribution gaps between TIA and DCIA and the overall performance of the regression model. Moreover, DCIA is more likely to affect runoff lag time without the contribution of TIA; however, an increase in rainfall peak ratio or duration will significantly limit its performance. These results can provide insight into the hydrologic performance of imperviousness, which is essential for landscape design and runoff regulation in small urban catchments.
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| [32] |
Evaluating the impact and risk of pluvial flash flood on intra-urban road network: A case study in the city center of Shanghai, China [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.03.037 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Urban pluvial flood are attracting growing public concern due to rising intense precipitation and increasing consequences. Accurate risk assessment is critical to an efficient urban pluvial flood management, particularly in transportation sector. This paper describes an integrated methodology, which initially makes use of high resolution 2D inundation modeling and flood depth-dependent measure to evaluate the potential impact and risk of pluvial flash flood on road network in the city center of Shanghai, China. Intensity uration requency relationships of Shanghai rainstorm and Chicago Design Storm are combined to generate ensemble rainfall scenarios. A hydrodynamic model (FloodMap-HydroInundation2D) is used to simulate overland flow and flood inundation for each scenario. Furthermore, road impact and risk assessment are respectively conducted by a new proposed algorithm and proxy. Results suggest that the flood response is a function of spatio-temporal distribution of precipitation and local characteristics (i.e. drainage and topography), and pluvial flash flood is found to lead to proportionate but nonlinear impact on intra-urban road inundation risk. The approach tested here would provide more detailed flood information for smart management of urban street network and may be applied to other big cities where road flood risk is evolving in the context of climate change and urbanization.
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