地理科学进展  2017 , 36 (11): 1423-1434 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2017.11.011

研究综述

企业并购投资区位选择机理与效应的研究进展

吴加伟123, 陈雯123*, 张鹏123

1. 中国科学院南京地理与湖泊研究所,南京 210008
2. 中国科学院流域地理学重点实验室,南京 210008
3. 中国科学院大学资源与环境学院,北京 100049

A literature review of merger and acquisition (M&A) study from the geographical perspective: Location choice, driving mechanism and implications

WU Jiawei123, CHEN Wen123*, ZHANG Peng123

1. Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, CAS, Nanjing 210008, China
2. Key Laboratory of Watershed Geography, CAS, Nanjing 210008, China
3. College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

通讯作者:  通讯作者:陈雯(1967-),女,福建宁德人,研究员,博士生导师,研究方向主要为区域发展与规划,E-mail: wchen@niglas.ac.cn

版权声明:  2017 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目(41130750,41671133)国家社会科学基金项目(15BJL043)[Foundation: National Natural Science Foundation of China, No.41130750, No.41671133National Social Science Foundation of China, No.15BJL043

作者简介:

作者简介:吴加伟(1990-),男,江苏南京人,博士生,研究方向为产业地理、城市发展与区域规划,E-mail: jwwu@niglas.ac.cn

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摘要

全球跨境与本土并购活动日益频繁,有效地促进了企业各类要素跨区域、跨部门流动,是产业转型与空间重构乃至重塑区域经济地理格局的重要动力。企业并购逐渐成为经济地理学界研究的重要内容。相关研究利用经典区位分析、企业组织及空间扩张、产业地理集聚、全球生产网络(GPNs)等经济地理学理论和方法,从企业自身组织与空间结构演化、企业间及地方多维临近性等角度,广泛探讨了企业并购投资区位选择的时空特征、形成机制及其空间效应等议题。主要研究结论为:①企业并购投资区位选择在不同空间尺度上均呈现“核心—边缘”结构,而企业所在区域和行业属性,企业间地理、组织、认知临近性,地方间经济社会联系等是其重要影响因素。②企业并购投资的空间效应主要体现在企业增长及其空间扩张、产业转型与空间重构,区域经济发展、劳动力就业、地方商业与制度环境、区域差异与区域一体化等方面。在总结国内外研究成果的基础上,本文指出中国经济地理学领域企业并购研究的不足和方向,以期为相关研究提供有益借鉴。

关键词: 企业并购投资 ; 区位选择 ; 机理 ; 空间效应 ; 研究进展

Abstract

Cross-border and domestic mergers and acquisitions (M&As) have undergone a rapid growth in recent years, which has facilitated the mobility of various elements across different regions and sectors. Therefore M&As are considered an important impetus and solution for the optimization of enterprise organization, industrial transformation, and spatial restructuring, as well as regional integration and sustainable development. Since the 1950s, there has been a vast literature straddling the boundaries of economics, enterprise managerialics, international trade studies, and economic geography on M&As. The literature mainly focused on three perspectives, namely organizational perception, interaction or networks perspective, and a contextual or spatial view of the firms involved in M&As. Taking advantage of theories and methodologies in relevant research fields, such as location theory, corporate geography, industrial agglomeration, and global production networks and proximity, scholars have done much effective empirical work on this issue. First, the spatiotemporal pattern and contacting networks of M&As have been investigated in various spatial scales, such as worldwide, inter-countries, and inter- and intra-regions. Second, deriving related theories, the literature focused on the driving factors and dynamic mechanism of M&As, especially the heterogeneities of enterprise characteristics, industrial attributes, and locational context. Third, the literature has paid increasing attention to the locational implications of M&As for corporate performance, public welfare, industrial transformation, and regional development, and the spatial consequences of M&As is a hotspot for related studies. Although cross-border and domestic M&As taken by Chinese corporates are increasingly frequent since the global financial crisis, research on M&As from spatial and geographical perspectives in China is far from sufficient. Therefore, this literature review focuses on the progress in theoretical perspectives and empirical research on M&As, and explores the implications and agendas for further research on M&As in a transitional China.

Keywords: merger and acquisition ; location choice ; driving mechanism ; locational implications ; literature review

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吴加伟, 陈雯, 张鹏. 企业并购投资区位选择机理与效应的研究进展[J]. 地理科学进展, 2017, 36(11): 1423-1434 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2017.11.011

WU Jiawei, CHEN Wen, ZHANG Peng. A literature review of merger and acquisition (M&A) study from the geographical perspective: Location choice, driving mechanism and implications[J]. Progress in Geography, 2017, 36(11): 1423-1434 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2017.11.011

1 引言

企业并购投资(Merger and Acquisition,M&A)一般指买方企业(Acquirer)利用兼并和收购(如资产业务合并、收购控股股权)等方式,获得标的企业(Target)部分或全部资产所有权的投资模式(Chapman, 2003),可发生在跨境/国家(Cross-board M&A)、跨区域以及城市/区域本土内部(Domestic M&A)等不同空间尺度,并存在垂直并购(Vertical M&A)、横向并购(Horizontal M&A)、多元化并购(Conglomerate M&A)等具体形式(Kangueehi, 2015)。19世纪中叶,并购开始成为西方企业经营管理、资本运作与投资的重要形式(Green et al, 1984)。19世纪末以来,伴随信息技术革命与全球化,全球范围内相继出现多次大规模的企业本土与跨境并购浪潮(Kangueehi, 2015)。早期受战争、国际金融管制等影响,企业并购大多发生在发达国家/地区内部,加速了生产要素、经济决策权等向少数区域集聚,推动了全球城市和大都市区的崛起(Green, 1990; Zademach, 2005)。1970年代以来,随着全球化与区域一体化深入、跨国公司扩张等,跨区域、跨境并购快速增长,加快了全球资本、产业的转移扩散,尤其是促进了新兴工业化国家/地区迅速发展,重塑了国际劳动分工与经贸发展格局(Chapman, 2003; Lebedev et al, 2015)。

基于此,自20世纪中叶以来,西方经济地理学界开始关注活跃于经济学和管理学领域的企业并购研究。经济学与管理学研究以经济学范式为主,较多地关注企业组织结构、并购投资选择及其发展绩效的动态关联和互馈机制(Trautwein, 1990)。而经济地理学研究认为企业并购是根植于地方的经济活动,强调其地理空间属性,并广泛运用经典区位分析以及企业组织与空间扩张、产业集聚、GPNs、临近性等理论展开实证研究(图1)。早期研究基于新古典区位论、FDI区位选择等视角,认为并购投资是企业追逐“利益最大化”的地理行为,交易成本、区位优势等是影响其区位选择的关键因素(Dunning, 1979; Laulajainen, 1988)。但区位理论大多是由绿地投资(Greenfield Investment)研究发展而来,考虑并购投资在参与主体及其投资形式等方面的特殊性,系统分析其区位选择机理与效应需要多元经济地理学理论方法综合集成(Chapman, 2003)。

图1   经济地理学领域企业并购研究视角及发展脉络

Fig.1   Research perspectives of merger and acquisition (M&A) in economic geography studies

1980年代以来,随着企业(公司)地理学以及跨国公司多厂战略行为研究、组织与空间演化模型分析工具等发展(李小建, 1991; 费洪平, 1993; Maskell, 2001),相关研究注重探讨企业组织演化、空间扩张与并购投资的动态关联(Green et al, 1989)。但上述分析视角较少关注企业的产业链联系与地域根植性,伴随“新区域主义”理论建构运动,企业并购研究广泛运用新经济地理学(NEG)、产业区等理论方法,强调产业关联性、企业地方关联、集聚经济与“地方/关系资产”等因素,注重探讨并购投资与产业空间发展演化的互动机制(Green et al, 1997; Aliberti et al, 1999)。2000年以后,企业并购研究愈发关注领先企业(Lead Firm)战略行为、企业间竞合关系等作用,GPNs理论被用于分析企业战略实施、并购投资区位与其生产网络管制结构、权力关系、价值获取方式等方面的关联机制(Yeung, 2009; MacKinnon, 2012; Horner, 2013; Coe et al, 2015)。近年来,企业并购研究视角不断丰富,相关研究强调区位理论、企业组织与空间扩张、产业集聚、GPNs等视角的综合,尤其将多维临近性理论纳入分析框架,广泛探讨了企业间、区域间的地理、认知、组织、产业、社会与制度等临近性与企业并购活动的动态关联(Di Guardo et al, 2016)。

西方经济地理学者利用上述研究视角和分析框架,广泛探讨了企业并购投资区位选择的时空格局特征、形成演化机理及其空间效应等实证问题(McCarthy et al, 2015)。但中国企业并购活动起步较晚,1990年代实行市场经济体制后,以公司为主体的并购投资活动才开始出现(企业兼并与破产问题研究课题组, 1997)。近年来,伴随经济快速发展、证券市场规范化、“一带一路”国际合作倡议等提出,中国企业跨境与本土并购投资快速增长(魏乐等, 2012; Buckley et al, 2016),在全球经贸与产业发展中的作用日益突出,鼓励企业兼并重组也逐渐成为推动产业转型升级、区域发展的重要政策举措。然而,国际上仍较少关注发展中国家主导的企业并购研究,中国现有研究也主要集中于经济学、管理学领域,经济地理学界的研究较少,尤其是关于企业并购区位选择机理与空间效应的探讨较为欠缺。因此,为了提供中国企业并购实践的现实经验,丰富经济地理学领域内企业区位、产业集聚等经典理论,适时展开企业并购研究显得较为迫切。综上,本文重点综述国内外企业并购投资区位选择机理与效应的研究进展,旨在从理论和方法上为中国经济地理学界的企业并购研究提供有益借鉴。

2 企业并购投资区位选择机理研究

企业并购投资区位选择呈现特殊的时空特征,主要表现在并购事件、买方与标的企业的时空分布格局,企业间、国家/区域间并购网络等方面。一方面,大量研究和数据分析表明,企业并购投资活动对经济发达区域具有较强的地理偏好,买方和标的企业的时空格局在全球、国家、区域等不同空间尺度上呈现出与经济地理格局、城镇等级结构等相似的“核心—边缘”空间分布结构(Green, 1990; Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2003);另一方面,企业并购投资联系网络及其演化关系,体现在买方与标的企业空间位置关系、企业控制权与经济决策权空间转移等过程中。企业间、区域间并购网络的关键节点仍是由发达国家、全球城市、大都市区等地方占据,关键节点间的并购交易频率、联系强度也更高(Zademach et al, 2009; Boschma et al, 2016)。已有的企业并购投资区位选择时空特征及其演化机理的研究,着重于分析买方和标的企业的区域、行业属性,企业及其所在地方间多维临近性等方面因素的影响(图2)。

图2   企业并购投资影响因素与驱动机制的实证研究内容

Fig.2   Research progress of driving factors and mechanisms of merger and acquisition (M&A)

2.1 企业的区域、行业属性与并购投资

企业的区域属性,如资源要素禀赋、运输成本、劳动力供给、市场化程度、集聚经济、制度及创新环境等“地方资产(Local Asset)”,是影响企业是否参与并购投资的重要因素(Zademach, 2005; Grote et al, 2006)。首先,本地要素条件能影响企业并购投资决策,尤其是当本地资本市场、客户需求与专业化人才无法满足企业发展诉求时,本地企业将通过并购投资进行升级和扩张(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2003)。其次,集聚经济效应能促进区域内技术溢出、资源共享与市场多样化,有利于企业整合、创新与管理能力提升,进而增强企业参与并购投资的可能性(Mariotti et al, 2014)。再次,地方制度与创新环境也是影响企业参与并购投资的重要因素。相关研究指出,区域制度变革推动了企业所有制、政府激励政策以及市场结构与范围等转变,能激发企业更多地参与并购活动(Zademach et al, 2009)。

企业所属行业的组织形式、产品结构、市场竞争程度以及未来增长预期等属性,也是深刻影响企业并购投资频率及其区位选择的重要因素(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2006; Yeo, 2013)。首先,不同行业的企业并购投资能力与频率有所差异。相关研究表明,1990年代美国、英国的汽车以及时尚设计行业的企业并购活动明显少于银行等金融行业,而全球低技术含量、劳动密集型企业并购投资则比高技术企业更为频繁(Green et al, 1997; Chapman, 2003)。其次,由于市场环境、组织形式与生产网络等方面的差别,不同行业(如传统制造业和新兴服务业)企业并购投资的驱动机制差异较大,如高端生产性服务与高技术企业参与并购主要为获取新知识、技术、人才和社会关系资本等,侧重通过企业间相互学习和创新提升企业竞争优势(Chapman et al, 2000; Weterings et al, 2015)。再次,不同行业企业并购投资的区位选择也有所差异。如Rodríguez-Pose等(2006)针对德国企业本土并购投资的研究发现,相比于信息通讯技术、汽车与重化工业等,金融、保险、能源与纺织等产业内企业并购投资区位的空间集聚态势更为显著;而Boschma等(2016)关于意大利企业本土并购投资的研究则表明,高技术企业并购投资更倾向于向核心区域或大都市区集聚。

2.2 企业间地理、组织、认知临近性与企业并购投资

现有研究主要从地理、组织与认知临近性等角度,探讨企业间联系对并购投资的影响机制。其中,企业间的地理临近性对并购活动的影响机制,即“本土偏好(Home Bias)”效应,是实证研究的核心(Green, 1990; Ellwanger et al, 2015)。伴随经济全球化,信息技术革命一定程度会减弱地理距离对企业并购的影响;但大量实证研究指出,企业更愿意信任本地商业环境,更倾向于选择并购近距离标的企业,仍具有较强的“本土偏好”(Grote et al, 2006)。一是地理临近有利于企业间信息交流与共享,能够避免企业间信息不对称(Asymmetric Information);二是地理临近有利于并购整合,买方和标的企业可以实现设备等固定资产、劳动力等要素共享;三是地理临近的并购活动有利于减少市场内竞争对手,提高知识与技术创新溢出等外部效应(Rallet et al, 1999; Chakrabarti et al, 2013; Di Guardo et al, 2016)。同时,也有学者指出,远距离并购也伴随规模和范围经济等积极效应,若买方企业并购投资经验丰富、信息搜寻与处理能力较强,且注重标的企业所在市场及其产业配套等,则其有很大可能选择并购远距离的标的企业(Chakrabarti et al, 2013)。

此外,企业间组织与认知临近也是影响并购投资的重要因素,集中体现在企业间组织结构相似性、产业关联性等方面。一方面,组织临近性主要体现在企业间规模、所有制结构、经营管理能力的相似性和互补性,买方企业尤其注重标的企业在固定资产、供应链体系与社会关系网络等方面的现有优势;实证研究中主要将企业间在母公司/分支机构、上市状态、劳动力结构、创新投入与绩效、财务状况等方面的差异作为度量或分析组织临近的指标(Yeo, 2013; Boschma et al, 2016)。另一方面,企业间认知临近与产业关联性高度相关,具体指行业技术水平相似性、行业信息对称性等,也是影响企业间并购投资的重要因素(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2006; Ellwanger et al, 2015)。Boschma等(2016)研究指出,企业间产业及相关技术属性的临近性,有利于买方和标的企业在并购整合中获取范围和规模经济,并增强相关产业链、价值链上下游企业的联系。Ellwanger等(2015)则认为,企业间产业关联性对并购投资的影响作用要强于企业间的地理临近性。

2.3 企业所在地方间经济社会联系与企业并购投资

基于企业—地方“嵌入”与“根植”关联等视角,现有实证研究主要从区域间宏观发展环境、地理临近、经济社会联系强度、文化制度环境相似性等方面探讨地方间联系对企业并购的影响作用。首先,企业跨国并购事件快速增加得益于全球经济一体化、金融市场繁荣、信息技术进步等宏观环境,也受到新兴工业化国家市场化、分权化等制度转型的影响(Chapman, 2003; Du et al, 2015)。Mishra等(1998)针对美国和中国香港之间企业并购活动的研究指出,全球资本市场状况、国家政治环境对企业并购投资影响较大,尤其是国家/地区间政治风险等会降低两地企业间的并购投资的发生频率。

其次,区域间地理临近与空间距离是影响并购投资网络的重要因素,相邻国家/区域或大都市区间的企业并购联系更为紧密(Green et al, 1989; Green, 1990; Zademach, 2005)。区域间地理临近有利于两地产业协作与转移,促进企业间信息传递与共享、企业管理及技术人员面对面交流等,进而使当地企业获得“非交易相互依赖”、集聚经济效应、技术创新及其扩散溢出效应以及信息搜寻与处理等方面的优势,一定程度上能提升两地企业并购投资可能性(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2003; Böckerman et al, 2006; Boschma et al, 2016)。

再次,区域间产业经济发展水平、交通和信息网络以及生产网络联系等,也是影响区域间企业并购及其网络联系的重要因素,经济社会发展程度高、且联系和协作密切的区域间企业并购活动更为频繁(Aliberti et al, 1999; Lehto, 2006)。Rodríguez-Pose等(2006)探讨了大都市区之间集聚经济水平、群岛经济效应(Archipelago Economies)等因素的作用,Lehto(2006)以GDP等为主要指标测度区域间经济社会联系对企业并购的影响。Chapman(2003)认为在1992年欧洲共同市场形成前后,区域间市场结构与范围等不断重构,类似的区域一体化进程很大程度上能够激发了企业跨境并购浪潮。

此外,伴随经济地理学文化与制度转向等,相关研究重点探讨了区域间制度与文化环境相似性对企业并购活动的影响(Mason et al, 2006; Buckley et al, 2016)。相关研究指出,区域间(如母国和东道国)政治、文化、制度等方面的关联有利于降低企业并购的交易成本,对企业跨国和本土并购活动均有较大影响(Jonas, 1992; Di Guardo et al, 2016)。近年来,学者具体探讨了国家/区域间语言差异、政府治理水平、政治变革风险、民主程度、政府腐败等因素对区域间企业并购网络联系的新影响作用(Hur et al, 2011; Du et al, 2015)。

3 企业并购投资的空间效应研究

企业并购投资的空间效应(Locational Implication)是经济地理学者关注的焦点。现有实证研究主要从企业、产业与区域转型发展等角度,重点探讨企业并购在企业增长及其空间组织演化、产业转型及空间重构、区域经济增长与劳动力就业、商业与制度环境、区域一体化等方面的效应(图3)。

图3   企业并购投资空间效应的实证研究内容

Fig.3   Research progress of locational implications of merger and acquisition (M&A)

3.1 企业并购、增长与空间组织演化

并购投资对企业自身的影响效应主要体现在企业绩效增长、组织及其空间结构演化等方面。一方面,并购是企业提高管理水平和经营绩效、实现增长的重要手段,但对买方和标的企业影响作用存在差异(Healy et al, 1992; Mariotti et al, 2014)。买方企业通过并购能获取更多优质资产,实现销售利润、生产效率等增长,并增强对全球或区域内产业链上下游环节的控制能力;标的企业虽然会获得现金或股权补偿,但可能丧失自决策主权,出现衰退或消亡现象(Turok et al, 1991; Lagendijk, 1995)。也有研究指出,标的企业被并购后可保持组织与管理独立,能够进入买方企业生产网络,并进行管理、技术和产品升级(Kangueehi, 2015)。

另一方面,并购活动能够转变企业所有制形式、内外部管理结构与联系网络等,促进企业各部门/分支机构间资本及经营活动的空间转移,进而推动企业自身组织增长与空间拓展 (Chapman, 2003; Zademach, 2005)。买方企业可通过并购投资控制标的企业,并将其整合为新的下属部门或分支机构,尤其跨区域、跨行业并购能够转变企业组织结构及其生产网络,重塑企业各部门的空间布局和联系网络 (Post, 1994; Boschma et al, 2014)。同时,由于涉及企业有形与无形资产整合,并购投资也会改变企业内部资源配置与权力关系,企业总部与各部门、分支机构对要素与权力的空间竞争将更加激烈(Norman et al, 2000; Chapman, 2003)。

3.2 企业并购与产业转型及空间重构

一方面,企业并购可促进全球资源要素在不同区域、部门与产业间流动和配置,有利于企业在更大范围和领域获取新技术、新市场,并可推动不同尺度内科技研发、生产制造、市场营销、企业管理以及金融商务等产业功能的空间重组,带动相关产业通过资源整合与技术创新等延伸价值链、提升整体竞争实力,是加快产业融合发展与转型升级的重要途径(Lagendijk, 1995; Capasso et al, 2015; McCarthy et al, 2016)。另一方面,不同空间尺度内的企业并购投资,能体现和影响产业活动的空间格局与集散态势。部分研究指出,并购有利于促进区域尺度的产业集聚,如欧洲银行、化学、食品与造纸产业集聚与企业并购活动高度相关(Chapman et al, 2000; Rodríguez-Pose, 2006; Colombo et al, 2014);Boschma等(2014)研究也指出,企业并购是荷兰阿姆斯特丹银行业集群形成的重要动力,对区域产业竞争力提升作用较大。但有研究指出,并购可使原材料供应商、生产性服务业随企业进行空间迁移,企业跨国和本土并购能有效地推动发达国家与发展中国家、大都市区核心与边缘地区间的产业转移和扩散(Yeo, 2013; Weterings et al, 2015)。

3.3 企业并购与区域经济社会发展

企业并购对区域经济社会转型发展的影响效应主要体现在区域经济发展水平、劳动力就业、区域商业与文化制度环境、区域差异与区域一体化等方面。首先,大量实证研究认为,并购活动推动了区域间企业和经济决策权力的转移,影响了区域对商品、人才、资本、信息等要素资源的掌控配置能力,进而影响区域经济发展与整体竞争实力(Green et al, 1989; Ashcroft et al, 1993; Boschma et al, 2014)。并购能增强买方企业对产业链环节的控制能力,有利于买方企业所在区域集聚资源要素、决策权力、生产性服务功能等,有助于区域整体竞争力的提升(Green et al, 1984; Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2003; Colombo et al, 2014)。但同时,并购也加快了标的企业及其所在区域人才、资本以及相关服务的流失,使标的企业及其所在区域丧失控制权、难以参与买方企业决策,长期不利于地方可持续发展(Turok et al, 1991; Kim, 2009);但也有学者指出,企业并购投资网络有利于标的企业所在区域在参与全球/区域竞合过程中发挥地方资产优势,加强“全球—地方”关联,有利于地方链接全球资本和知识,增强本地集群的适应性和可持续发展能力,减小负面锁定风险等(Boschma et al, 2014)。

其次,由于并购类型及具体企业并购案例的不同,企业并购活动对劳动力就业影响效应较为复杂,表现出明显的多样性特征(Chapman, 2003)。部分研究认为,企业并购对劳动力就业的负面作用较大,尤其是横向整合类并购活动为精简生产环节、节约成本等,会关停标的企业或缩减其就业岗位(Love, 1989; Tickell, 1998; Wills et al, 2000; Weterings et al, 2015)。但Mason等(2006)研究指出,若买方企业为获取地方优质资产和劳动力资源等,就会注重对标的企业员工培训,类似的并购活动会促进地方专业化劳动力市场的形成,有利于地方就业岗位增加和劳动力技能水平提升等。但总体而言,有关企业并购对劳动就业影响的实证研究还较为缺乏,未来需深入探讨企业并购对人力资源流动、地方专业化劳动力市场等方面的影响作用。

再次,企业并购活动能够转变企业家战略行为与政府部门决策,对区域商业、制度与社会文化环境具有较为深刻的影响(Sally, 1994; Mason et al, 2006)。一方面,标的企业原先创业、管理人才可利用其所拥有的“套现(Cash-out)”资本设立风险、天使投资基金,并创立孵化器、大学、科研院所等机构,是标的企业所在区域培育企业家精神、改善商业环境的源泉和主力军;同时“套现”企业家也会促进创业经验等隐性知识传播与共享,有利于提升区域创新创业的“制度厚度”,增强地方对优质人才、产业资本等要素的“粘性”(Mason et al, 2006)。另一方面,地方政府也会不断调整其在财政税收、商事规则与产业准入等方面的制度和政策,以此优化投资环境,吸引优质并购资本服务地方经济发展与竞争力提升(Sleuwaegen, 1998; Di Guardo et al, 2016)。

此外,企业并购也是与区域差异和区域一体化高度相关的“双刃剑”。一方面,并购活动中决策权力不断由全球领先企业掌控,相关经济活动也随之向总部经济较为发达地区集聚,加速了全球城市、区域中心城市、大都市区等区域对优质资源要素的“虹吸”效应,强化了“核心—边缘”区域经济地理格局和城镇空间等级体系,城市、区域间发展差异会被进一步扩大(Aliberti et al, 1999; McCarthy et al, 2015)。伴随经济控制权向买方所在区域极化,企业决策大多基于经济发达地区利益,标的企业所在区域不断经历企业关停、撤资(Disinvestment)等,导致经济利益空间分配不均衡,拉大了区域间福利与居民收入水平的差异(Kim, 2009; Zademach et al, 2009)。另一方面,也有研究指出,企业并购活动能促进资本、人才与信息等要素跨区域流动,增强不同等级、功能城市及区域间的经济社会的联系和协作,有利于区域一体化发展,尤其是欧洲、北美地区的企业并购,推动了区域经济、市场、货币等领域的一体化进程(Chapman, 1999; Wójcik, 2002; Coeurdacier et al, 2009)。

4 企业并购实证研究方法进展

1980年代以来,经济地理学企业并购实证研究的方法体系逐渐成熟,主要体现在定量分析与模型方法、质性描述与理论模型等方面。

4.1 定量分析与模型方法

在大量实证研究中,学者综合运用全球或案例地区的专业化企业并购数据库、微观企业数据库、经济社会宏观数据库等,通过不同尺度与类型数据库的交叉匹配,进而全面获取并购双方企业的空间位置、所有制结构、经营绩效状况、劳动力构成及其区域、行业属性等信息(Böckerman et al, 2006; Ellwanger et al, 2015)。其中,针对企业并购投资区位选择(如参与企业时空格局与网络联系等)的刻画测度,主要利用简单数据统计分析、GIS空间可视化、社会网络分析等方法进行研究。相关研究依托数据库建构,区分不同空间尺度、行业类别等,对并购事件数量、买方和标的企业数量、并购涉及金额等数据进行动态对比、聚类等一般统计学分析(Zademach et al, 2009);也有学者利用改进区位熵(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2003)、对数线性空间相互作用模型(Aliberti et al, 1999)、基尼系数等方法进行量化与识别,定量刻画和分析欧洲、北美地区企业跨国与本土并购投资的时空分布格局及其演化特征。近年来,相关研究更加注重定量测度不同国家/区域间企业并购网络联系,并利用GIS空间分析、社会网络分析对其进行可视化研究(Zademach et al, 2009; 魏乐等, 2012; Yeo, 2013)。

此外,经验假设与计量、数理模型分析等方法被广泛应用于企业并购投资区位选择机理研究。相关研究首先对企业并购活动发生、发展影响因素及其作用机理进行经验假设,再以企业间、区域间并购联系及强度等为因变量,以代表企业特征、产业与区域属性、企业间与区域间临近性等影响因素的统计指标为自变量,构建回归检验模型,如Poisson回归(Green et al, 1997)、Probit和Tobit模型(Böckerman et al, 2006)、多项分对数(Multilogit)模型(Lehto, 2006)、多元回归模型(Rodríguez-Pose et al, 2006)、多项Logistic回归(Zademach et al, 2009)、加权分对数回归模型(Chakrabarti et al, 2013)、零膨胀(Zero-Inflated)模型(Di Guardo et al, 2016)等方法。同时,相关研究也广泛利用构建特定指标系数、哑变量、控制变量、引力或重力模型等方法表征地理距离、企业/产业/区域属性等关键解释变量(Ellwanger et al, 2015)。

4.2 质性描述与理论模型

经济地理学对企业并购研究也注重借鉴经济学、企业管理学、国际贸易学等理论视角,综合运用企业组织结构、企业间联系、企业与地方关联等质性分析方法,强调全球或国家宏观经济、制度背景的影响,尝试将企业并购交易成本、预期收益及其地理空间属性进行整合研究,构建系统化、多样化的理论分析框架(Zademach et al, 2009; Chakrabarti et al, 2013)。Boschma等(2014)基于产业集群演化、企业衍生等研究视角,尝试构建了并购活动中的企业生存与竞争风险分析的框架;Reddy等(2017) 综合多种理论视角提出企业并购活动资源导向、市场导向与制度导向等多样化分析框架。此外,相关研究主要利用多重个案延展法(案例研究、问卷与结构性访谈等)等方法,质性描述和分析企业并购对企业、产业与区域转型发展的影响效应(Mason et al, 2006)。

5 结论与讨论

伴随经济全球化与区域一体化不断深入,企业并购投资已逐渐成为全球资本流动、国际经贸发展的主要特征,是企业要素整合、市场拓展、人力资源和知识技术获取的重要途径,也是影响产业转型升级、城市和区域可持续发展的重要因素。1980年代以来,企业并购研究备受西方经济地理学者关注。本文基于文献追踪,梳理了西方经济地理学领域有关企业并购研究的理论视角,重点从企业并购投资区位选择机理与效应两方面综述了实证研究进展与方法创新等。可以发现,学者综合运用经济地理学、企业管理学与国际贸易学等理论和分析方法,主要从企业组织结构、企业间网络联系、企业与地方外部关联等角度,探索构建了以经典区位理论、企业组织与空间扩张、产业集聚、GPNs、多维临近性等为基础的理论框架,对企业并购投资的区位选择及其时空特征、形成机理与空间效应等问题开展了较为深入的研究,实证研究成果与方法体系日臻完善。然而,现阶段系统的企业并购理论体系尚未形成,尤其是经济地理学领域的理论和实证研究仍呈现“碎片化”,对于不同区域、行业间企业并购投资模式、战略行为与空间效应差异性的研究较为欠缺。此外,西方现有理论和实证研究大多基于发达国家企业的并购投资诉求与行为展开,发展中国家/地区及其企业往往被视为标的方,只能被动参与全球并购投资网络,尤其是在发展中国家/地区对全球经贸发展影响力日益增强的背景下,目前国际上对由发展中国家及其企业主导的并购投资研究显得较为缺乏(Boschma et al, 2014)。

中国企业并购活动及相关研究起步较晚,学术探讨主要集中在企业管理、国际贸易、产业经济等领域,研究议题以跨国公司在华并购投资、中国企业跨境与本土并购投资的形成机制与影响效应等为主。其中,跨国公司在华并购投资主要集中在中国东部沿海地区,并购方式以协议收购为主,并呈现由制造业向服务业、高技术产业转变的趋势(赵景华等, 2017);已有研究主要从企业战略行为等微观视角分析中国企业跨境、本土并购投资机制,并探讨了相关并购活动对中国企业/产业转型和区域发展的影响效应(洪联英等, 2015; 黄玮强等, 2015)。总体而言,中国经济学、管理学领域相关实证研究成果较为丰富,不过对企业并购投资区位选择及其空间效应关注仍然较少。尤其是伴随经济全球化的深入发展以及中国经济新常态与转型发展,中国企业并购投资在时空格局演化、动力机制变迁、空间效应差异化等方面的“特殊性”将不断凸显(Du et al, 2015; Buckley et al, 2016),亟需经济地理学者借鉴国外现有成果,全面运用多学科理论、多重分析视角,深入探析外资在华并购、中国企业跨境与本土并购活动形成发展机制及其对国民经济社会的影响作用。目前,中国经济地理学者针对在华FDI、国内上市公司等绿地投资网络、形成机制与发展效应等议题开展了大量的理论和实证研究(李小建, 2004; Wei et al, 2009; 刘作丽等, 2009; 贺灿飞等, 2013; 潘峰华等, 2013; 吴加伟等, 2014)。但是,已有研究较少关注并购这一企业跨区域、跨部门的直接投资方式,仅有少量研究对中国企业跨境以及本土跨区域并购网络进行初步探讨(魏乐等, 2012; 胡浩等, 2013),相关理论分析、方法创新与实证研究尚显不足。基于本文对国内外研究现状的综述,未来中国经济地理学领域对企业并购研究可从以下几方面作深入探讨。

5.1 基于中国转型背景的企业并购地理学分析框架有待建构

中国与发达国家在经济体制、资本市场发展水平等方面均存在较大差异,尤其是中国企业并购是伴随经济体制改革发展而产生,转型期内市场机制尚不完善、行政区经济等均会使中国企业并购发展存在特殊性,源于发达国家市场经济背景的经济地理学理论视角和分析框架,能否解释中国企业跨境和本土并购活动有待进一步验证。此外,今后研究应在科学总结中国企业并购活动特点基础上,充分考虑经济转型、区域差异与政府干预等特殊背景,可借鉴西方较为成熟的理论方法,尝试综合运用区位理论、企业(公司)地理、GPNs、多维临近性等分析视角,并突出企业组织与空间结构、企业间网络联系、企业与地方外部关联的动态演化特性,探索构建适应中国转型背景下企业并购研究的分析框架,重点基于经济地理学理论视角阐述中国企业并购活动的地理行为及其时空格局、形成机制与影响效应等关键问题。

5.2 企业并购活动网络格局的动态演化规律需进一步总结

国外现有研究从全球、国家和区域间等尺度广泛探讨了企业并购网络格局,但对其动态演化规律总结较少,针对不同城市间、行业间的差异性研究也有待深入,有关企业在不同国家和区域进行并购投资的形式、战略行为差异的研究也相对缺乏。中国区域间、城市间经济社会发展差异较大,企业管理与经营水平各有不同,企业并购网络格局势必存在较大的区域差异,而国内仍缺乏多空间尺度、多行业比较的实证研究。因而,今后研究应尝试从全球范围以及本土区域间、省区间、市县间等尺度刻画描述企业并购战略行为、网络格局及其动态演化规律,突出并购网络格局在不同空间尺度、行业部门、并购模式间的差异性。

5.3 中国企业并购活动特殊的影响因素及机制有待探索

关于企业并购形成发展的影响因素与机制研究,国外现有研究主要从企业、行业与区域属性,企业间、区域间多维临近性等方面展开。中国企业并购活动面临特殊的国际经贸、国内经济体制与区域发展环境,企业并购的地理因素及其作用机制有待进一步探索。首先,基于西方现有研究成果,学者可探讨企业间、国家/区域间的地理临近性,以及企业间产业技术关联性(组织与认知临近性)等因素对并购活动的影响作用;其次,国内现有研究基于经济学、企业管理学视角,对区域属性、区域间关联,尤其是区域间文化制度临近性等因素研究较少,今后研究应更加注重企业并购活动与地方的“根植性”与“动态耦合性”,尤其是对中国企业所有制形式、政府干预、行政区经济与市场分割等因素的分析。再次,相关研究需要注重从企业微观视角出发,选取典型企业与案例,在不同企业发展战略(如纵向整合、横向拓展)、投资方式等条件下,揭示中国企业本土并购投资决策过程、投资行为及其微观动力机制。

5.4 企业并购活动对中国产业与区域发展效应研究需要完善

并购活动是影响企业经营绩效、产业转型与空间重构、劳动力就业、地方商业与制度环境、地区差异以及区域综合实力的重要因素。中国经济学领域的相关研究主要聚焦并购活动对企业绩效、产业链整合等方面的效应,较少关注企业并购投资的空间效应,尤其是在产业转型转移、区域经济社会发展等方面。因而,今后研究应侧重探讨企业并购投资对企业组织和空间结构的影响,揭示企业并购投资在产业集聚形态、产业区空间组织模式重构过程中的作用。在此基础上,相关研究也可进一步探讨中国企业并购投资在城市间经济社会联系与等级结构、区域差异与区域一体化发展等方面的空间效应。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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<p>尽管学术界至今未能形成一般性的外商直接投资(FDI)区位理论,但已有的大量研究却对加深理解FDI的区位选择规律做出了重要贡献。中国作为一个成功转型国家,在华FDI区位研究早已成为各界关注的热点问题之一。本文从区位理论和FDI理论两方面梳理FDI区位研究的理论基础后,回顾并评述了在华FDI区位研究进展,并提出了其未来发展中需要完善的相关命题。早期的研究以定性描述为主,从20世纪90年代中期开始转入利用计量经济模型对影响在华FDI区位选择的因素进行识别;研究主要集中在省区尺度,识别出的区位因子主要包括成本、市场、集聚和制度等。FDI在东道国的区位选择行为是&ldquo;区域&mdash;产业&mdash;企业&rdquo;共同作用的结果,在识别东道国区位要素的基础上,已有文献同时也关注了来源国效应、产业特征与企业属性和时间演化对FDI区位决策的影响。未来研究中需要加强对新兴经济体FDI区位模型的一般性讨论,强化&ldquo;区域&mdash;产业&mdash;企业&rdquo;系统研究,并关注基于功能视角的在华FDI(跨国公司)区位研究。</p>

[Liu Z L, He C F.2009.

A literature review on FDI location

[J]. Progress in Geography, 28(6): 952-961.]

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00205-2_9      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

<p>尽管学术界至今未能形成一般性的外商直接投资(FDI)区位理论,但已有的大量研究却对加深理解FDI的区位选择规律做出了重要贡献。中国作为一个成功转型国家,在华FDI区位研究早已成为各界关注的热点问题之一。本文从区位理论和FDI理论两方面梳理FDI区位研究的理论基础后,回顾并评述了在华FDI区位研究进展,并提出了其未来发展中需要完善的相关命题。早期的研究以定性描述为主,从20世纪90年代中期开始转入利用计量经济模型对影响在华FDI区位选择的因素进行识别;研究主要集中在省区尺度,识别出的区位因子主要包括成本、市场、集聚和制度等。FDI在东道国的区位选择行为是&ldquo;区域&mdash;产业&mdash;企业&rdquo;共同作用的结果,在识别东道国区位要素的基础上,已有文献同时也关注了来源国效应、产业特征与企业属性和时间演化对FDI区位决策的影响。未来研究中需要加强对新兴经济体FDI区位模型的一般性讨论,强化&ldquo;区域&mdash;产业&mdash;企业&rdquo;系统研究,并关注基于功能视角的在华FDI(跨国公司)区位研究。</p>
[9] 潘峰华, 夏亚博, 刘作丽. 2013.

区域视角下中国上市企业总部的迁址研究

[J]. 地理学报, 68(4): 449-463.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[Pan F H, Xia Y B, Liu Z L.2013.

The relocation of headquarters of public listed firms in China: A regional perspective study

[J]. Acta Geographica Sinica, 68(4): 449-463.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[10] 企业兼并与破产问题研究课题组. 1997.

对我国企业并购产生与发展的考察

[J]. 中国工业经济, (9): 5-11.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

建国以来,我国企业兼并的发展,大致可以概括为性质不同的三个阶段,这就是:第一阶段为80年代前的行政性关停并转;第二阶段为企业改革初期的半企业性、半行政性的企业联合兼并、收购;第三阶段为实行市场经济体制之后,以公司形态为特征的企业并购。我国规范的企业兼并与

[Qiye Jianbing yu Pochan Wenti Yanjiu Ketizu.1997.

Dui woguo qiye binggou chansheng yu fazhan de kaocha

[J]. China Industrial Economy, (9): 5-11.]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

建国以来,我国企业兼并的发展,大致可以概括为性质不同的三个阶段,这就是:第一阶段为80年代前的行政性关停并转;第二阶段为企业改革初期的半企业性、半行政性的企业联合兼并、收购;第三阶段为实行市场经济体制之后,以公司形态为特征的企业并购。我国规范的企业兼并与
[11] 魏乐, 张秋生, 赵立彬. 2012.

我国产业重组与转移: 基于跨区域并购复杂网络的分析

[J]. 经济地理, 32(2): 89-93.

URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

跨区域并购日益成为我国实现区域间产业重组和转移的重要途径。以2006--2011年我国资本市场并购数据为基础,构建跨区域并购复杂网络,采用社会网络分析方法分别从中心性分析、多维尺度分析、核心—边缘结构分析等角度,实证分析了我国31个省市在跨区域并购网络中结构与地位以及区域问产业重组与转移的规律。研究发现:跨区域并购关系呈现出显著的“核心—边缘”特征,跨区域并购目标有明显的区域选择差异,网络中省市间中心度差异较大,中间中心度比较高的省市很少等。最后,提出国家应从产业结构调整的视角宏观指导企业并购,清除对企业跨地区并购设置的行政障碍,实施国家区域协调政策和区域开放性的并购政策,指导企业跨区域并购行为,提升各省市的产业竞争力。

[Wei L, Zhang Q S, Zhao L B.2012.

Industrial restructuring and transferring based on complex networks of CRMAs

[J]. Economic Geography, 32(2): 89-93.]

URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

跨区域并购日益成为我国实现区域间产业重组和转移的重要途径。以2006--2011年我国资本市场并购数据为基础,构建跨区域并购复杂网络,采用社会网络分析方法分别从中心性分析、多维尺度分析、核心—边缘结构分析等角度,实证分析了我国31个省市在跨区域并购网络中结构与地位以及区域问产业重组与转移的规律。研究发现:跨区域并购关系呈现出显著的“核心—边缘”特征,跨区域并购目标有明显的区域选择差异,网络中省市间中心度差异较大,中间中心度比较高的省市很少等。最后,提出国家应从产业结构调整的视角宏观指导企业并购,清除对企业跨地区并购设置的行政障碍,实施国家区域协调政策和区域开放性的并购政策,指导企业跨区域并购行为,提升各省市的产业竞争力。
[12] 吴加伟, 袁丰, 吕卫国, . 2014.

金融危机下泛长三角FDI时空格局演化及其机制研究

[J]. 地理科学进展, 33(12): 1601-1613.

https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2014.12.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The regional disparity and determining factors of foreign direct investment (FDI) locations are influenced by industrial characteristics, corporate attributes, and the social and economic environments of the home country and receiving country. Changes in the location choice of FDI and influencing factors have occurred under the background of global financial crisis. Based on the theory of path dependence, we choose the Pan-Yangtze River Delta area as an example to study such change. First, we analyzed the process of spatiotemporal evolution of FDI in terms of total amount, target industry, and location choice before and after the global financial crisis. Then we explored the change in the determining factors of FDI locations and their influences through a panel data analysis model. Our study suggests that the evolution of the location choice of FDI and its influencing factors in the Pan-Yangtze River Delta area followed the path dependence model. The original evolution path of FDI was shocked by the global financial crisis, and with the dynamic change of internal and external factors such as market circumstances, factor cost, innovative milieu, agglomeration economies, suck cost, and institutional environment and their influences, the trends of total amount, target industry, and location choice of FDI showed high complexity and diversity. Specifically, the total amount of FDI experienced negative growth under the economic crisis, but along with the resuscitation of the world economy, its growth has recovered. Although the regional difference of target industry is huge, services will become the largest business for FDI in China. Moreover, because of the transformation of factor cost, policy environment, among others, it is an inevitable trend that FDI of labor/resource/pollution-intensive industries will shift from coastal areas to central and western China. However, on account of the market circumstances, innovative milieu, agglomeration economies, and so on, FDI in high-end manufacturing and service sectors will continue to gather towards urban areas.

[Wu J W, Yuan F, Lv W G, et al.2014.

Spatiotemporal change of foreign direct investment and mechanism in the Pan-Yangtze River Delta area under the global financial crisis

[J]. Progress in Geography, 33(12): 1601-1613.]

https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2014.12.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The regional disparity and determining factors of foreign direct investment (FDI) locations are influenced by industrial characteristics, corporate attributes, and the social and economic environments of the home country and receiving country. Changes in the location choice of FDI and influencing factors have occurred under the background of global financial crisis. Based on the theory of path dependence, we choose the Pan-Yangtze River Delta area as an example to study such change. First, we analyzed the process of spatiotemporal evolution of FDI in terms of total amount, target industry, and location choice before and after the global financial crisis. Then we explored the change in the determining factors of FDI locations and their influences through a panel data analysis model. Our study suggests that the evolution of the location choice of FDI and its influencing factors in the Pan-Yangtze River Delta area followed the path dependence model. The original evolution path of FDI was shocked by the global financial crisis, and with the dynamic change of internal and external factors such as market circumstances, factor cost, innovative milieu, agglomeration economies, suck cost, and institutional environment and their influences, the trends of total amount, target industry, and location choice of FDI showed high complexity and diversity. Specifically, the total amount of FDI experienced negative growth under the economic crisis, but along with the resuscitation of the world economy, its growth has recovered. Although the regional difference of target industry is huge, services will become the largest business for FDI in China. Moreover, because of the transformation of factor cost, policy environment, among others, it is an inevitable trend that FDI of labor/resource/pollution-intensive industries will shift from coastal areas to central and western China. However, on account of the market circumstances, innovative milieu, agglomeration economies, and so on, FDI in high-end manufacturing and service sectors will continue to gather towards urban areas.
[13] 赵景华, 申桂萍. 2017.

后金融危机时期跨国公司在华并购的现状、特征及应对策略

[J]. 现代管理科学, (2): 15-17.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-368X.2017.02.005      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

金融危机之后,世界经济恢复性复苏.各国政府随着全球经济形势的变化,结合本国的实际情况调整了对外投资政策,如德国的工业4.0、美国制造业回归,中国经济体制改革进一步深化、“一带一路”战略等,这促使企业跨国并购交易活动呈现与以往不同的特点.文章深入考察了后金融危机时期跨国公司在华并购的现状,总结了并购发起者、并购对象、并购方式、并购行业和并购区域等方面的特征,探讨了跨国公司在后金融危机时期在中国并购存在的问题,同时提出了应对的战略措施.

[Zhao J H, Shen G P.2017.

Hou jirong weiji shiqi kuaguo gongsi zai hua binggou de xianzhuang, tezheng ji yingdui celue

[J]. Modern Management Science, (2): 15-17.]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-368X.2017.02.005      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

金融危机之后,世界经济恢复性复苏.各国政府随着全球经济形势的变化,结合本国的实际情况调整了对外投资政策,如德国的工业4.0、美国制造业回归,中国经济体制改革进一步深化、“一带一路”战略等,这促使企业跨国并购交易活动呈现与以往不同的特点.文章深入考察了后金融危机时期跨国公司在华并购的现状,总结了并购发起者、并购对象、并购方式、并购行业和并购区域等方面的特征,探讨了跨国公司在后金融危机时期在中国并购存在的问题,同时提出了应对的战略措施.
[14] Aliberti V, Green M B.1999.

A spatio-temporal examination of Canada's domestic merger activity, 1971-1991

[J]. Cahiers de Géographie de Québec, 43(119): 239-250.

https://doi.org/10.7202/022815ar      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

Cette étude examine les relations entre les centres urbains canadiens (régions métropolitaines de recensement) en ce qui a trait au phénomène de fusion d'entreprises pour les années 1971,1976,1981 et 1991. Une analyse loglinéaire décrivant les flux spatiaux pour ces années permet d'établir que les villes de Toronto, Montréal, Calgary et Vancouver connaissent le plus grand nombre de fusions du point de vue des entreprises achetées ou acheteuses.
[15] Ashcroft B K, Love J H.1993. Takeovers, mergers and the regional economy[M]. Midlothian, TX: Edinburgh University Press.

[本文引用: 1]     

[16] Böckerman P, Lehto E.2006.

Geography of domestic mergers and acquisitions (M&As): Evidence from matched firm-level data

[J]. Regional Studies, 40(8): 847-860.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601043365      URL      [本文引用: 3]     

[17] Boschma R, Hartog M.2014.

Merger and acquisition activity as driver of spatial clustering: The spatial evolution of the Dutch banking industry, 1850-1993

[J]. Economic Geography, 90(3): 247-266.

https://doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12054      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

This article investigates the extent to which merger and acquisition (M&A) activity contributed to the spatial clustering of the Dutch banking industry in Amsterdam. This analysis is based on a unique database of all banks in the Netherlands that existed in the period 1850-1993. We found that spatial clustering of the Dutch banking industry was not driven by the fact that banks performed better in the Amsterdam region: being located in Amsterdam decreased rather than increased the survival chances of banks. However, banks in Amsterdam were disproportionally active in acquiring other banks outside Amsterdam. Experience in M&As accumulated mainly in the Amsterdam region, which in turn had a positive impact on the survival chances of banks located there. Our findings suggest that M&A activity was a driving force behind the spatial clustering of the Dutch banking industry between 1850 and 1993.
[18] Boschma R, Marrocu E, Paci R.2016.

Symmetric and asymmetric effects of proximities: The case of M&A deals in Italy

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 16(2): 505-535.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbv005      URL      [本文引用: 3]     

[19] Buckley P J, Yu P, Liu Q, et al.2016.

The institutional influence on the location strategies of multinational enterprises from emerging economies: Evidence from China's cross-border mergers and acquisitions

[J]. Management and Organization Review, 12(3): 425-448.

https://doi.org/10.1017/mor.2016.21      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

This study investigates the institutional influence on the location strategies of Chinese cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A) during the period 1985–2011 across 150 economies using Heckman's two-stage model. The results suggest that Chinese Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) are ‘shortsighted’ and show perverse behaviour towards host country risk when deciding on the location of host country and volume of investment undertaken through M&As, which may damage the firm's long-term profitability.
[20] Capasso M, Stam E, Cefis E.2015.

Industrial dynamics and economic geography

[J]. Regional Studies, 49(1): 5-9.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.982440      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Capasso M., Stam E. and Cefis E. Industrial dynamics and economic geography, Regional Studies. How do industries emerge and evolve over space? In this special issue the fields of industrial dynamics and economic geography are brought together in order to achieve a richer and more fundamental understanding of the organization of industries over time and space than each of these fields could do separately. Firm heterogeneity at the micro-level and industry composition of a region at the macro-level provide important elements in the explanation of industry emergence and evolution over space. History and space matter in the evolution of industries: this special issue shows how and why.
[21] Chakrabarti A, Mitchell W.2013.

The persistent effect of geographic distance in acquisition target selection

[J]. Organization Science, 24(6): 1805-1826.

https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1120.0811      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

Valuable resources often exist at distant points from a firm's current locations, with the result that strategic decisions such as growth have a spatial dimension in which firms seek information and choose between geographically distributed alternatives. Studies show that geographic proximity facilitates the flow of resources, but there is limited understanding of factors that exacerbate or ease the impact of geographic distance when firms seek new resources. This paper argues that the difficulty of search increases with distance, particularly when search involves greater information processing, but that firms can partially overcome the constraints of distance with direct, contextual, and vicarious learning. We study 2,070 domestic acquisition announcements by U.S. chemical manufacturers founded after 1979. The results demonstrate the persistent effect of spatial geography on organizational search processes.
[22] Chapman K.1999.

Merger/acquisition activity and regional cohesion in the EU

[M]//Phelps N A, Alden J. Foreign direct investment and the global economy. London, UK: The Stationery Office: 121-138.

[本文引用: 1]     

[23] Chapman K.2003.

Cross-border mergers/acquisitions: A review and research agenda

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 3(3): 309-334.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/3.3.309      URL      [本文引用: 8]      摘要

Presents a review of literature on the role corporate merger and acquisitions in the evolution of space economy. Increase in the value of mergers and acquisitions in the global economy during the last two decades of the 20th century; Impact of the growth of regional blocs such as the European union on the global economy; Discussion on motivations for mergers and acquisitions.
[24] Chapman K, Edmond H.2000.

Mergers/acquisitions and restructuring in the EU chemical industry: Patterns and implications

[J]. Regional Studies, 34(8): 753-767.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400050192847      URL      [本文引用: 2]     

[25] Coe N M, Yeung H W C. 2015. Global production networks: Theorizing economic development in an interconnected world[M]. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

[本文引用: 1]     

[26] Coeurdacier N, De Santis R A, Aviat A, et al.2009.

Cross-border mergers and acquisitions and European integration

[J]. Economic Policy, 24(57): 56-106.

URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[27] Colombo L V A, Turati G.2014.

Why do acquiring banks in mergers concentrate in well-developed areas? Regional development and mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in banking

[J]. Regional Studies, 48(2): 363-381.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2011.653337      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Colombo L. V. A. and Turati G. Why do acquiring banks in mergers concentrate in well-developed areas? Regional development and mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in banking, Regional Studies. The paper focuses on all mergers and acquisitions (M&As) transactions of regional relevance that occurred in the Italian banking sector between 1995 and 2006. A strong direct effect of regional economic and social characteristics on the concentration of the banking industry in Italy is found, as well as on the agglomeration of acquiring banks in well-developed regions. This effect survives to a number of robustness checks, including controls for banks profitability and efficiency, and for their institutional characteristics, indicated by the banking literature as the key factors driving concentration in banking. Possible theoretical explanations supporting the empirical findings are also investigated, and their policy implications are discussed.
[28] Di Guardo M C, Marrocu E, Paci R.2016.

The concurrent impact of cultural, political, and spatial distances on international mergers and acquisitions

[J]. The World Economy, 39(6): 824-852.

https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12275      URL      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

The paper explores the concurrent effects of cultural, political, and spatial distances on M&A flows occurring between any two countries belonging to the whole European Union (27 States) or to the European Neighbors group (16 States) over the period 2000-2011 . By employing zero-inflated negative binomial specifications, entailing both a binary and count process, we adequately model the two different mechanisms which may generate zero observations in the cross-border bilateral deals. Zeros may be due to either the lack of any transactions or unsuccessful negotiations. We find robust evidence that the multi-dimensional distance between two countries negatively affects the probability that they will engage in M&A deals, while the recurrence rate of these deals is positively related to population, gross domestic product, and technological capital and negatively related to geographical distance.
[29] Du M, Boateng A.2015.

State ownership, institutional effects and value creation in cross-border mergers & acquisitions by Chinese firms

[J]. International Business Review, 24(3): 430-442.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2014.10.002      URL      [本文引用: 3]     

[30] Dunning J H.1979.

Explaining changing patterns of international production: In defence of the eclectic theory

[J]. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 41(4): 269-295.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1979.mp41004003.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

No abstract is available for this item.
[31] Ellwanger N, Boschma R.2015.

Who acquires whom? The role of geographical proximity and industrial relatedness in Dutch domestic M&As between 2002 and 2008

[J]. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 106(5): 608-624.

https://doi.org/10.1111/tesg.12141      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

Abstract In economic geography, geographical proximity has been identified as a key driver of M&A activity. In this context, little attention has yet been drawn to the effect of industrial relatedness, which refers to the similarity and complementarity of business activities. We examine 1,855 domestic M&A deals announced between 2002 and 2008 in the Netherlands, and we assess the extent to which geographical proximity and industrial relatedness affect M&A partnering. Our study shows that geographical proximity drives domestic M&A deals, even at very detailed spatial scales like the municipality level. We also found evidence that companies that share the same or complementary industries are more likely to engage in an M&A deal. Logistic regressions show that the effect of industrial relatedness is stronger than the effect of geographical proximity and that the effect of geographical proximity is stronger in unrelated than related target selection.
[32] Green M B.1990.

Mergers and acquisitions: Geographical and spatial perspectives

[M]. New York: Routledge.

[本文引用: 4]     

[33] Green M B, Cromley R G.1984.

Merger and acquisition fields for large united states cities 1955-1970

[J]. Regional Studies, 18(4): 291-301.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09595238400185291      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

ABSTRACT Green M. B. and Cromley R. G. (1984) Merger and acquisition fields for large United States cities, 1955--1970, Reg. Studies 18, 291--301. Theories of merger and acquisition activity implicitly assume a national scale of locations for acquisition candidates. In fact, however, acquisitions and mergers are made within a regional scale. The acquisition patterns of New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago demonstrate this. The extent of these acquisition fields are examined both cartographically and through the use of competing destinations spatial interaction models. It is shown that the spatial extent of these acquisition fields has increased over the period 1955--70.
[34] Green M B, Mcnaughton R B.1989.

Canadian interurban merger activity, 1962-1984

[J]. Canadian Geographer, 33(3): 253-264.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0064.1989.tb00908.x      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

This paper provides a description and analysis of the changing patterns of corporate control resulting from mergers involving Canadian firms between 1962 and 1984. A core-periphery model is invoked to argue the importance of mergers from a spatial perspective. log linear analysis is used to test for a significant relationship between urban locational patterns of acquiring and acquired firms and to assess the stability of this pattern over time. External control ratios are calculated for Canadian regions of various sizes. Cette communication fournit une description et une analyse des changements de dimension des contr00les corporatifs, résultant de la fusion de Sociétés canadiennes entre 1962 et 1984. Un modèle centre-périphèrie démontre I'importance des fusions d'une perspective spatiale. Une analyse log linéaire sert à vérifier s'il existe une relation significative, en milieu urbain, entre les dimensions spatiales de sociétés acquises et celles des sociétés en voie d'acquisition, ainsi qu'àévaluer la stabilité temporelle de ces dimensions spatiales. On calcule aussi I'importance relative des contr00les externes pour des régions canadiennes de superficies variées.
[35] Green M B, Meyer S P.1997.

International acquisitions: Host and home country explanatory characteristics

[J]. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, 79(2): 97-111.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3684.1997.00009.x      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

To better understand what place-specific attributes are most important to foreign direct investors, we consider the pattern of international foreign acquisitions, for the year 1993, from a simultaneous home and host country perspective. It is shown that the world's most prominent buyer and target countries are few in number. Furthermore, with the use of a stepwise-like Poisson regression procedure, we determine that both home and host country conditions are important in explaining the spatial pattern of low-tech and high-tech international acquisitions. Specifically, international high-tech and low-tech acquisitions are best described by country-specific variables measuring trade, investment risk assessment, patents and tourism and that low-tech acquisitions are also linked with a country's domestic economic strength and government efficiency and stability. The outliers from the Poisson regression equations provide evidence that, in particular, the United States and Canada as well as, other countries geographically adjacent are disproportionately active in this type of foreign direct investment.
[36] Grote M H, Umber M P.2006.

Home biased? A spatial analysis of the domestic merging behavior of us firms[R]. Working paper series: Finance & Accounting, No. 161. Frankfurt, Germany:

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[37] Healy P M, Palepu K G, Ruback R S.1992.

Does corporate performance improve after mergers

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https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(92)90002-F      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

We examine the post-acquisition operating performance of merged firms using a sample of the 50 largest mergers between U.S. public industrial firms completed in the period 1979 to 1983. The results indicate that merged firms have significant improvement in asset productivity relative to their industries after the merger, leading to higher post-merger operating cash flow returns. Sample firms maintain their capital expenditure and R&D rates relative to their industries after the merger, indicating that merged firms do not reduce their long-term investments. There is a strong positive relation between postmerger increases in operating cash flows and abnormal stock returns at merger announcements, indicating that expectations of economic improvements underlie the equity revaluations of the merging firms.
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Strategic decoupling, recoupling and global production networks: India's pharmaceutical industry

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[39] Hur J, Parinduri R A, Riyanto Y E.2011.

Cross-border M&A inflows and quality of country governance: Developing versus developed countries

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https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0106.2011.00568.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[40] Jonas A E G.1992.

Corporate takeover and the politics of community: The case of Norton Company in Worcester

[J]. Economic Geography, 68(4): 348-372.

https://doi.org/10.2307/144024      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Corporate takeovers have added to the social and economic problems of industrial communities already devastated by plant closures. Foreign takeover activity has increased significantly in recent years in the United States, yet surprisingly little is known about community-based anti-takeover movements. One such movement occurred in March and April 1990 in Worcester, Massachusetts, where a coalition of workers, employers, public officials, and community groups mobilized to change legislation affecting takeovers of corporations in Massachusetts. The legislation prevented the acquisition of Norton Company, a multinational manufacturer of abrasives and Worcester''s largest private employer, by B.T.R., a British multinational corporation. The changes in takeover legislation gave Norton directors time to negotiate a friendly merger with a Paris-based multinational, Compagnie de Saint-Gobain. This merger met no opposition in Worcester. The extent and depth of community opposition to B.T.R., compared to the lack of opposition to the merger with Saint-Gobain, is attributed to Norton''s labor control strategy and community involvement, both of which evolved out of struggles between workers and owner-managers at Norton during the first two decades of this century. Drawing from the case study, I examine critically some theoretical issues that have been at the core of recent debates in economic geography: the impacts of global industrial restructuring on local political practice; the changing nature of class and economic forces shaping local economies; and the role of community in local political strategy.
[41] Kangueehi N C.2015.

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[42] Kim Y H.2009.

Cross-border M&A vs. greenfield FDI: Economic integration and its welfare impact

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2008.08.005      URL      [本文引用: 2]     

[43] Lagendijk A.1995.

The foreign takeover of the Spanish automobile industry: A growth analysis of internationalization

[J]. Regional Studies, 29(4): 381-393.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409512331349043      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

LAGENDIJK A. (1995) The foreign takeover of the Spanish automobile industry: a growth analysis of internationalization, Reg. Studies 29, 381–393. As an alternative to the transaction-based explanations, internationalization of production can be conceived as the outcome of industrial growth with new production areas emerging from international investments as ‘growth peripheries'. This paper discusses the value of growth theory for the study of internationalization and examines a particular case of growth-periphery, i.e. the rise of the Spanish automobile industry. The results point at the significance of the industrial level to explain the foreign takeover and growth of production in Spain; however, the role of the individual business strategies of the key players in the production system, notably the assembly firms, cannot be ignored. LAGENDIJK A. (1995) Le rachat étranger de l'industrie automobile espagnole: une analyse de la croissance de l'internationalisation, Reg. Studies 29, 381–393. A la différence des explications qui portent sur les opérations, l'internationalisation de la production pourrait s'expliquer par la croissance industrielle, et les nouvelles zones de production qui apparaissent suite aux investissements internationaux pourraient être considérées des ‘périphéries de croissance'. Cet article a pour but de discuter de la contribution de la théorie de croissance à l'etude de l'internationalisation, et examine une ‘périphérie de croissance' comme cas d'étude, à savoir la croissance de l'industrie automobile espagnole. Les résultats laissent supposer l'importance du niveau industriel afin d'expliquer le ‘rachat' étranger et la croissance de la production en Espagne; cependant il faut tenir compte des stratégies individuelles des entreprises clé qui font partie intégrante du système de production, notamment les entreprises de montage. LAGENDIJK A. (1995) Die 05bernahme der spanischen Automobilindustrie durch das Ausland: Eine Analyse zunehmender Internationalisierung, Reg. Studies 29, 381–393. Internationalisierung der Produktion kann als Alternative zu auf Transaktionen beruhenden Erkl01rungen aufgefa08t werden, und neue Produktionsgebiete, die sich aus internationalen Investierungen ergeben, als ‘Wachstumsperipherien'. Dieser Aufsatz diskutiert den Wert der Wachstumsperipherie für das Studium der Internationalisierung, und untersucht ein Beispiel einer Wachstumsperipherie, d.h. den Aufstieg der spanischen Automobilindustrie. Die Ergebnisse verweisen auf die Bedeutung der H02he der Industrialisierung zur Erkl01rung der ‘05bernahme' durch das Ausland und Zunahme der Produktion in Spanien; die Rolle individueller Gesch01ftsstrategien der Hauptspieler im Produktionssystem, vorallem der Montagefirmen, kann dabei jedoch nicht au08er Acht gelassen werden.
[44] Laulajainen R.1988.

The spatial dimension of an acquisition

[J]. Economic Geography, 64(2): 171-187.

https://doi.org/10.2307/144122      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The acquisition of a large, diversified retailer by a competitor is described. The case sheds light on the weight of spatial considerations, such as expansion to new markets and penetration of existing ones, relative to other acquisition criteria, such as the compatibility of merchandising and management styles and the price of the target. Non-spatial factors narrowed the search to three corporations with compatible retail mix, while spatial overlap focused the choice further to two targets with equal price but different retail mix and spatial spread. The final choice was influenced by the anticipated resistance which the management of the respective companies would offer to a bid.
[45] Lebedev S, Peng M W, Xie E, et al.2015.

Mergers and acquisitions in and out of emerging economies

[J]. Journal of World Business, 50(4): 651-662.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2014.09.003      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Although numerous studies analyze mergers and acquisitions (M&As) in and out of developed economies (DE), a much smaller number of studies focus on M&As in and out of emerging economies (EE). Since there are significant differences in institutional environments, corporate governance practices, and markets between DE and EE, existing knowledge on acquisitions can be extended by examining M&As in and out of EE. This paper addresses this gap and identifies the main findings of studies on acquisitions in and out of EE. The review deals with EE M&A antecedents and performance outcomes, with a focus on what new insights can be gained and what new research directions are revealed. This paper also develops propositions regarding EE M&A antecedents and performance.
[46] Lehto E.2006.

Motives to restructure industries: Finnish evidence of cross-border and domestic mergers and acquisitions

[J]. Papers in Regional Science, 85(1): 1-22.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1435-5957.2006.00023.x      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Abstract. We estimate a multilogit model for the probabilities that a firm will acquire or become a target in different M&A categories, which are defined according to the location of an acquiring firm with respect to a target. We find that certain firm characteristics of an acquiring firm regarded as indicative of having a high capability of monitoring a target – or internalising the potential synergies of M&A – increase the probability of distant M&As at the expense of close M&As. Factors which ease the monitoring of the target firm's value increase the probability that such a firm becomes a target located far from an acquiring firm.
[47] Love J H.1989.

External takeover and regional economic development: A survey and critique

[J]. Regional Studies, 23(5): 417-429.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343408912331345602      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

LOVE J. H. (1989) External takeover and regional economic development: a survey and critique, Reg. Studies 23, 000-00. This paper offers a review and critique of the literature on the impact on regional development of increasing external control brought about by external acquisition. External control is shown to be an important and pervasive phenomenon, and acquisition an increasingly important method by which external control may grow. The existing economics literature on mergers is shown to provide an unsuitable framework for analysis at the regional level, and it is noted that while external control has been widely studied, relatively little systematic research has been undertaken to quantify the economic effects of inward acquisition. An agenda of research priorities is proposed.
[48] MacKinnon D.2012.

Beyond strategic coupling: Reassessing the firm-region nexus in global production networks

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 12(1): 227-245.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbr009      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

No abstract is available for this item.
[49] Mariotti S, Piscitello L, Elia S.2014.

Local externalities and ownership choices in foreign acquisitions by multinational enterprises

[J]. Economic Geography, 90(2): 187-211.

https://doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12039      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This article assesses the influence of spatial heterogeneity on the entry mode by multinational enterprises (MNEs) in foreign markets. Focusing on acquisitions, we claim that the location of the target firm influences the MNE’s ownership choice. MNEs normally execute partial acquisitions to reduce their liability of foreignness and to preserve their target’s inherent competencies, particularly in highly innovative and internationally competitive sectors. However, this phenomenon occurs less frequently if target firms are located in areas that are characterized by relevant externalities, such as core cities and industrial districts. In particular, core cities allow foreign MNEs to access a variety of information and knowledge as well as other externalities that are associated with international interconnectedness; industrial districts provide MNEs with easier access to industry-specific agglomeration economies (a local pool of skilled labor, local input-output linkages, and local knowledge spillovers). These locations provide substitutes for different aspects of the target firm’s competences, thus reducing an MNE’s need to maintain a local partner. Empirical evidence from foreign acquisitions of local manufacturing firms that occurred in Italy during the 2001–10 period confirms these expectations.
[50] Maskell P.2001.

The firm in economic geography

[J]. Economic Geography, 77(4): 329-344.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2001.tb00168.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article is concerned with the alleged absence in economic geography of a particular microtheoretical foundation that spells out precisely what makes the central actor of the subdiscipline, 090008the firm,090009 behave and perform the way it does. It especially maintains that economic geography is characterized by the lack of a clear conception and understanding of why this specific form of organizing economic activity exists and prevails in a specialized exchange economy, the factors conditioning its size and boundaries, and the endogenous mechanisms that influence its mode of external interaction. The article proposes that theories developed in neighboring fields090000particularly economics090000can be identified, selected, and subsequently applied within economic geography by developing a selection mechanism based on a few simple criteria.
[51] Mason C M, Harrison R T.2006.

After the exit: Acquisitions, entrepreneurial recycling and regional economic development

[J]. Regional Studies, 40(1): 55-73.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400500450059      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

MASON C. M. and HARRISON R. T. (2006) After the exit: acquisitions, entrepreneurial recycling and regional economic development, Regional Studies 40, 55–73. Most studies of the impact of mergers and acquisitions suggest they have a detrimental impact on economic development in peripheral regions over the longer-term. However, such assessments fail to consider the post-acquisition behaviour of the cashed-out entrepreneurs. It is argued here that acquisition triggers a process of ‘entrepreneurial recyclin
[52] McCarthy K J, Aalbers H L.2016.

Technological acquisitions: The impact of geography on post-acquisition innovative performance

[J]. Research Policy, 45(9): 1818-1832.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2016.05.012      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Our empirical study considers the impact of geography on post-acquisition performance for technological acquisitions. Relying on insights from the transaction costs and international business literatures we suggest that both geographic distance and borders influence post-acquisition innovative performance. Examining the patent portfolios of 3683 high tech acquirers in the period 2000–2012 we support a ‘liability of distance’ hypothesis and show that every 100002km between the target and the acquirer costs as much as 19 lost patent applications. We do not find support for a ‘liability of foreignness’ hypothesis, however, but show in fact, that else equal, cross-border deals result in 3.15 additional patent applications. For high tech acquirers we find that ‘foreignness’ appears, therefore, to be more of an ‘asset’ than a ‘liability’. We find that the lion’s share of this is attributable to cultural differences.
[53] McCarthy K J, Dolfsma W.2015.

The Euro and its impact on the number, size, performance and regional spread of European mergers and acquisitions

[J]. Regional Studies, 49(8): 1407-1422.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2015.1007936      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

McCarthy K. J. and Dolfsma W. The euro and its impact on the number, size, performance and regional spread of European mergers and acquisitions, Regional Studies. The macroeconomic effects of the euro have been extensively studied. The literature has, however, paid significantly less attention to the microeconomic consequences and few authors have considered if and how the euro has impacted firm-level decision-making. This paper explores if, how and in what way the euro has impacted one firm-level decision: whether to merge with or acquire another firm. This paper builds a sample of 19-362 acquisitions, announced in the period 1990-2014. It shows that the euro has dramatically increased the number, size and performance of European mergers and acquisitions. Importantly, it also notes that the euro has altered the geographic spread of European acquisitions. The paper reports that since the introduction of the euro, acquirers have made increasingly distant acquisitions and have preferred targets in peripheral regions to those in the core. The results also hint at the suggestion that the euro may have led acquirers to prefer Eurozone to non-Eurozone targets. From a policy perspective, it is concluded, therefore, that the euro has significantly impacted firm behaviour and has contributed, in a positive sense, to regional integration.
[54] Mishra C S, McConaughy D L, Clements A.1998.

Capital market and political factors affecting Hong Kong: Mergers and acquisitions in the U.S.: 1975-1994

[J]. Global Finance Journal, 9(1): 95-108.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1044-0283(98)90017-5      URL      摘要

No abstract is available for this item.
[55] Norman G, Pepall L.2000.

Spatial competition and location with mergers and product licensing

[J]. Urban Studies, 37(3): 451-470.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098002050      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper analyses mergers by Cournot firms producing differentiated products in a spatial market with product licensing by the merged firms. Product licensing allows the merged firms to co-ordinate their locations. If the degree of differentiation is not 'too low', a two-firm merger is more profitable for the merged firms than for the non-merged firms. The locational advantage created by the merger leads to the additional profit from the merger being an increasing function of the number of firms in the market. A two-firm merger generally increases total surplus and is therefore efficiency-enhancing. Moreover, there are circumstances in which every firm in the market wants to find a merger partner, consistent with the wave of mergers characteristic of many markets.
[56] Post A.1994.

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[57] Rallet A, Torre A.1999.

Is geographical proximity necessary in the innovation networks in the era of global economy

[J]. GeoJournal, 49(4): 373-380.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007140329027      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In the analysis of geographical spillovers, a commonly accepted hypothesis is that the different actors of innovation need to be physically closed to one another because the transfer of tacit knowledge implies frequent face-to-face relations. This hypothesis is put under closer examination in this paper. The first section analyses the need for economic agents to be closely located to develop research and innovative activities, starting with the analysis of their need for co-ordination and using some case studies. Based on the example of three French regions, the second section examines the importance given by the local development policies to geographical proximity in order to support the rapid development of local networks favouring innovation. In both sections, nonlocal relations appear as a key factor to develop innovation. As a conclusion, nonlocal relations should be encouraged by local development policies in the same way as local relations.
[58] Reddy K S, Xie E.2017.

Cross-border mergers and acquisitions by oil and gas multinational enterprises: Geography-based view of energy strategy

[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 72: 961-980.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.016      URL      摘要

Given that global crude oil prices are significantly dropped and business consolidation transactions are markedly increased in recent years, this paper, to date, is the first to examine the cross-border merger and acquisition strategy of oil and gas multinational enterprises. Using a fine-tuned sample of 150 large-scale oil acquisition transactions (US$535 billion) announced by oil and gas enterprises from over 50 countries during the period 2005-2015, we endeavor to answer four fundamental research questions: who is where, what for; who is there, why; who is where and there; and who is a serial acquirer. To do so, we propose an integrated framework of geography-based view of energy strategy by leveraging theoretical insights from the energy, economic geography, international business strategy, and corporate finance literature. On top of that, we discuss the dynamics of the oil and gas industry, and show the remarkable trends in the crude oil prices over the past three decades, 1990-2016. Our geographic analyses highlight that state-owned oil companies from Asia and a less extent Europe have rapidly expanded into resource rich countries such as Canada and the US to secure oil reserves as well as acquire industry-specific strategic assets. This research contributes to the geography-based view of energy strategy, and discusses policy and managerial implications to sustain the world oil and gas industry.
[59] Rodríguez-Pose A, Zademach H M.2003.

Rising metropoli: The geography of mergers and acquisitions in Germany

[J]. Urban Studies, 40(10): 1895-1923.

https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098032000116031      URL      [本文引用: 5]      摘要

High levels of mergers and acquisitions (M&As) were a characteristic of the global economy in the 1990s. The overall effects of M&As on economic welfare and their spatial implications, however, remain a profoundly neglected topic. Using three standardised indices representing the relative quantity of take-overs in each German Regierungsbezirk, the paper demonstrates that the recent wave of M&As has resulted in a major concentration of firms and economic activity in the main German metropoli. The paper then turns to a study of the flows of M&A transactions. By means of regression analysis, it identifies the main drivers of the geographical concentration of firms to be indicators of the general level of agglomeration (i.e. regional GDP and population) and the concentration of political power in the region. The results also indicate that investment in R&D, the general level of education, or unemployment, when considered in combination with agglomeration indicators, play a negligible role in determining M&A flows. With respect to the geographical distance between a merging or acquiring firm and its target, the results are twofold. While, when considered on its own, distance has a very weak or09”depending on cases09”insignificant association with the territorial distribution of M&A activity, when estimated in conjunction with agglomeration, proximity appears to play a distinctive role in the geography of M&As in Germany.
[60] Rodríguez-Pose A, Zademach H M.2006.

Industry dynamics in the german merger and acquisitions market

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https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9663.2006.00521.x      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

The recent wave of mergers and acquisitions (M&As) is not only profoundly altering the structure of businesses, but has also triggered a thorough reshuffling in the location of economic decision-making. This paper explores these changes in Germany over the last decade, with particular attention being paid to industry-specific transformations. In order to identify the logic behind changes in the location of economic decision-making, four factors are analysed across ten different industrial sectors. These determinants include the presence of economies of proximity and agglomeration, the degree of metropolitan interconnectivity (or 'archipelago economies'), the concentration of economic decision-making in large urban metropolitan areas, and the role played by geographical distance in shaping M&As. The results indicate that different industries display significantly different spatial merging behaviours, with economies of proximity, concentration and agglomeration playing a capital, but different role in determining the dynamics of M&As across sectors in Germany. There is also with the exception of the media industry, as well as information and communication technologies little sign of geography losing importance in economic transactions.
[61] Sally R.1994.

Multinational enterprises, political economy and institutional theory: Domestic embeddedness in the context of internationalization

[J]. Review of International Political Economy, 1(1): 161-192.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09692299408434272      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

There is rising interest in placing the study of the multinational enterprise (MNE) at the core of political economy scholarship. This article attempts to locate the MNE in its outer institutional environments. MNEs are embedded in networks of relations with a number of important external actors, not only governments. These networks manifest marked differences between nations and regions, with differential implications for production and managerial arrangements within the firm, public policy choices and the constellation of MNE-government relationships. In the distribution of wealth and power, MNEs are situated at the interface of domestic structures in national and regional political economies, and the process of internationalization within global political economic structures. A research agenda for the 1990s should, therefore, incorporate a political economy of the MNE in structures of global competition and cooperation that have institutional underpinnings. This study seeks to address elements of such an agenda by attempting to overcome the highly artificial distinction between the international and domestic branches of political economy, and selectively making use of the international business literature. It is therefore suggestive of a partial approach (among a number of others) to enhance interdisciplinary research in political economy, making no claim to universal theory on the political economy of the MNE.
[62] Sleuwaegen L.1998.

Cross-border mergers and EC competition policy

[J]. The World Economy, 21(8): 1077-1093.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9701.00182      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

No abstract is available for this item.
[63] Tickell A.1998.

A tax on success? Privatization, employment and the 'windfall tax'

[J]. Area, 30(1): 83-90.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4762.1998.tb00051.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

First page of article
[64] Trautwein F.1990.

Merger motives and merger prescriptions

[J]. Strategic Management Journal, 11(4): 283-295.

https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250110404      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract The article surveys theories of merger motives and relates them to prescriptions for merger strategies. The theories of merger motives can be classified into seven groups. Those theories arguing with private information, managerial empire-building or process influences are better supported by evidence than those tracing mergers back to efficiency gains or monopoly power. The explanations of mergers in terms of raider activity or macroeconomic disturbances carry the least plausibility. Strategy authors have discussed mergers with respect to the choice of acquisition mode, entry mode, and integration mode. The prescriptions on all three topics are dominated by the efficiency theory of mergers. For this reason they are dangerous guides for participants in merger processes. On the other hand they provide an efficient language for communicating one's position. The research in merger motives should be redirected from the efficiency theory to explanations that build on decision processes, conflicting goals, and ambiguous private information.
[65] Turok I, Richardson R.1991.

External takeovers of Scottish companies in the 1980s

[J]. Area, 23(1): 73-81.

URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Evidence is presented about the scale and characteristics of external takeovers of indigenous Scottish companies in the 1980s. Several immediate positive effects are identified as well as longer term negative consequences. Some policy implications are mentioned to help ensure that takeovers do not reinforce uneven regional development.
[66] Wei Y H D, Luo J, Zhou Q.2009.

Location decisions and network configurations of foreign investment in urban china

[J]. The Professional Geographer, 62(2): 264-283.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00330120903546684      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This article studies location decisions and network configurations of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu Province, located in the northwest of the Yangtze River Delta (YRD). Built on the perspective that China's economic transition can be conceptualized as a triple process of globalization, marketization, and decentralization, this article outlines four structural changes of the Chinese economy that are underlying the location and networks of FDI: decentralization and the empowerment of local states, marketization and the increasing importance of places, globalization and the emergence of globalizing city regions, and urban spatial restructuring. The study has uncovered substantial intraurban differences within Nanjing and the significance of the Chinese state, location within the YRD, and intraurban context in the location decisions for FDI. We have also found that foreign ventures overwhelmingly serve as production facilities for either the Chinese or world markets, and maintain close production relations with other foreign firms in the YRD. Finally, regression models have identified the significance of national-level development zones, access to ports, and industrial land in the location of foreign ventures.
[67] Weterings A, Marsili O.2015.

Spatial concentration of industries and new firm exits: Does this relationship differ between exits by closure and by M&A?

[J]. Regional Studies, 49(1): 44-58.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2012.726708      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

Weterings A. and Marsili O. Spatial concentration of industries and new firm exits: does this relationship differ between exits by closure and by M&A?, Regional Studies. This study shows that the effect of the spatial concentration of industries on the post-entry hazards of new firms differs by type of exit, and by industry. New firms located in regions with a higher relative concentration of firms in the same industry are less likely to exit by closing activities and more likely to exit by mergers and acquisitions (M&As). While localization economies that favour new firms' survival or a potentially successful exit through M&As are dominant in manufacturing, new firms in business services also experience increasing competition from new entrants that lowers the likelihood of survival and exit through M&As.
[68] Wills J, Cumbers A, Berndt C.2000.

The workplace at the millennium: New geographies of employment

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https://doi.org/10.1068/a3297      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

No abstract available.
[69] Wójcik D.2002.

Cross-border corporate ownership and capital market integration in Europe: Evidence from portfolio and industrial holdings

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https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/2.4.455      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The level and determinants of cross-border holdings are evaluated using data on the ownership structures of 711 MSCI index companies in 16 European countries. The level of foreign ownership in the 16 countries is significant, but spread unevenly, with US financial institutions controlling the majority of foreign stakes. Countries' borders, rather than company size ranges are the main lines of discrimination between high and low levels of foreign corporate ownership. Major factors influencing the intensity of cross-border links include the proximity of investors to the destination of capital, and corporate governance. From the perspective of international corporate ownership, the level of capital market integration in Europe is low and the concept of the pan-European company remains a long way from being realised. Implications are drawn for future research and integration policy.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsl.2013.12.001      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

The paper examines the geographic dimension between acquiring and target firms to take into account the information cost which decreases synergy effects generated by M&As in the container shipping industry. The paper finds that the geographical distance has a negative impact on takeover flows. M&A activities were more intense among firms located closely each other. The paper provides evidence that the firm size raises the relative acquiring probability for inter-regional and cross-border M&As. While the existing literature suggests that financially underperforming firms are more likely to be targeted by a firm, the paper argues that the smaller and unquoted public firms are more vulnerable to M&As.
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Regional development and the competitive dynamics of global production networks: An East Asian perspective

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https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400902777059      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Yeung H. W.-C. Regional development and the competitive dynamics of global production networks: an East Asian perspective, Regional Studies. The debate on the nature and dynamics of regional development in both academic and policy circles has now moved on from the earlier focus on endogenous regional assets to analysing the complex relationship between globalization and regional change. This position paper attempts to engage with this debate through the experience of regional development in East Asia. The p
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Ludwig Maximilians University.

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Cross-border M&As and the changing economic geography of Europe

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https://doi.org/10.1080/09654310902778276      URL      [本文引用: 7]     

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