司月芳
, 曾刚, 曹贤忠
SI Yuefang, ZENG Gang, CAO Xianzhong
通讯作者:
接受日期: 2015-10-27
网络出版日期: 2016-05-27
版权声明: 2016 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有
基金资助:
作者简介:
作者简介：司月芳(1982-),女,副教授,主要从事中国对外直接投资、创新网络和区域经济发展研究,E-mail: yfsi@re.ecnu.edu.cn。
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摘要
全球化、创新驱动是新时代的重要特征之一,创新网络成为经济地理学者关注的热点领域之一。在评述现有创新网络研究成果的基础上,本文界定了全球—地方创新网络的内涵和特征,论述了其类型、结构、作用机理和分析方法,并得出结论：全球创新网络与地方创新网络是不可分割的有机体,地方创新网络是全球创新网络的子系统,知识流是创新网络各主体之间联系的重要纽带,行业协会、技术联盟与成员之间的多次协商是全球—地方创新网络的重要组织方式,而网络知识测量方法则能较好地实现定性分析结论与统计计算结论的融合,能较好地刻画、模拟全球—地方创新网络的形态、结构、演变和机理。从服务国家建设和推动中国创新地理学发展的目标出发,有必要开展基于中国国情和视角的全球—地方创新网络机理与区域经济增长之间互动关系的研究,启动不同产业领域的全球—地方创新网络的比较分析,检验网络知识测量方法的可靠性和准确性。
关键词：
Abstract
Against the background of economic globalization and technological development, innovation network has been a heated topic in the field of economic geography research. However, the scale of research of innovation network remains debatable. Among the global, nation, and local scales, which one is important? The concept of “glocalization” provides a new perspective to this research. Glocalization refers to the twin process whereby, firstly, institutional arrangements shift from the national scale both upwards to the global scale and downwards to local configurations and, secondly, economic activities and inter firm networks are becoming simultaneously more localized/ regionalized and transnational. Based on solid theoretical reviews, this article defines the concept of glocal innovation network and then discusses the main issues and research methods of glocal innovation networks. In this article, glocal innovation network is defined as the sum of knowledge network channels of various innovators, for example, firms, universities, and research institutes, which increasingly connect globally scattered innovation resources together. Local innovation networks, which are the sub-networks of global innovation networks, are connected by trans-local knowledge flows. Glocal innovation networks are organized by the negotiation among industrial associations and technology alliances and their members. Network knowledge measurement is the suitable method to analyze the structure, evolution, and mechanism of glocal innovation network. The concept of glocal innovation networks provides a new perspective to analyze the approaches of local/regional innovation capabilities promotion and economic development by utilizing global and local knowledge. We conclude that existing research remains at the stage of conceptual discussion and case studies. Therefore, the following issues should be further studied: (1) glocal innovation network evolution dynamics and its connection with economic development; (2) comparative study of glocal networks of different industries and technologies; (3) characteristics of Chinese glocal innovation networks, which can provide empirical evidence of latecomer regions in the catching-up process for further theoretical discussion.
Keywords：
随着经济全球化的深化和科学技术的迅猛发展,知识的生产、分配和使用在区域经济增长中发挥着越来越重要的作用(Dicken, 2004)。技术创新成为促进区域经济发展的关键要素(Romer, 1986)。自20世纪50年代以来,国际上先后出现了五代重要的企业技术创新模式：第一、二代为简单线性模式,分别为技术推动和需求拉动;第三代为耦合模式,重视不同因素间相互作用和反馈环节;第四代为并行模式,重视公司内部一体化以及公司与供应商、顾客之间的外部联系;第五代为网络创新模式,重视公司内外部联系的高度整合,促进开放式创新(Rothwell, 1992)。
创新的地理特征是经济地理学研究的重要领域。从空间尺度上看,创新研究可分为两大流派：一是以地方产业集群、区域创新系统为核心内容的“新区域主义”流派,重视根植性、制度厚度和区域内企业、大学及研发机构之间的创新合作关系(Cooke et al, 1998);二是以全球生产网络、全球创新网络为核心内容的“关系地理学”流派,重视区域间的产业链分工合作、技术创新合作(Gereffi et al, 2005; Yeung, 2005)。然而,Swyngedouw(2004)等指出,仅关注单一空间尺度存在较大的片面性,将全球与地方融为一体的“全球—地方化”(Glocalization)概念能更好地解析全球—地方协同作用的复合特征。从内涵方面看,全球—地方化包含了全球、地方2个相互联系的层次,既包括地方向全球的扩展,也包括全球向地方的细化,空间尺度的意义便于理解同一个过程与结果在全球和地方的不同表现,全球—地方化也被越来越多的区域创新研究者所推崇(贺灿飞等, 2015)。
因此,系统回顾、总结归纳国内外创新网络“全球—地方化”概念、类型、结构、作用机理和分析方法,明确未来研究方向和重点,对于完善中国创新地理学理论体系具有重要意义。
创新过程涉及到区域、全球等多个空间尺度(Bunnell et al, 2001),与重视地方/区域尺度的区域创新系统(regional innovation system)、重视全球尺度的全球创新网络(global innovation networks)以及全球—地方2个空间尺度协同作用的全球—地方创新网络(glocal innovation networks)密切相关。
研发活动空间分布的非均衡性,决定了地方必然成为分析区域创新能力的基本单元(Scott, 1988)。Cooke等(1998)区域创新系统倡导者指出：区域创新系统是指由一定空间范围内相互分工与关联的生产企业、研究机构、高等学校、地方政府等构成的有利于创新活动的区域组织系统。该概念强调内生要素以及产学研一体化、根植性、信任、制度厚度,对促进企业创新、地方创新合作网络发展的决定作用,较好地解释了“第三意大利”等创新空间的粘性(王缉慈, 2001; 苗长虹, 2006)。
Cooke(2001)等区域创新系统论者指出,本地创新资源越丰富,内部联系越紧密,区域创新系统就越健康,竞争力越强。然而,随着网络内创新者之间合作增多,容易产生路径依赖和技术锁定,新知识创造和技术创新将会受到抑制(Adler et al, 2002)。
区域创新系统的过度根植性和技术锁定将大幅削弱区域创新能力。Ernst(2002)对ICT产业全球转移与技术升级的过程进行研究后发现,全球创新网络旗舰企业(flagship firm)在全球范围内搜寻知识资源,与区外的客户、供应商、大学、科研机构等建立了正式与非正式合作网络关系(图1),推动了企业创新。全球创新网络是一个权力不对称的网络,旗舰企业决定全球范围内的创新合作伙伴和创新项目、新产品开发的重点以及创新合作网络的组织结构和战略,直接影响供应商、分包商等低端参与者的网络地位、战略取向和发展前景(Ernst, 2009)。
图1 全球创新网络：以笔记本电脑为例(
Fig.1 Global innovation network: The case of personal computer (
全球创新网络不仅有利于全球范围内的知识、技能共享和互补,而且随着旗舰企业与国外子公司、供应商之间网络知识合作水平的提高,创新网络规模随之扩大,可较好地解释东亚等后发区域创新能力大幅提升的原因。然而,全球创新网络论者尚未对后发区域创新能力提高的途径和机制、不同区域之间创新互动关系进行深入研究,对高等院校、科研机构等创新主体在区域创新能力建设中的重要作用重视不够,这些都是后续研究者必须加以重视的问题。
区域创新系统和全球创新网络论者都重视单一空间的要素、组织问题,但忽视了全球、地方2个空间尺度的要素与组织密不可分的关联,过于强调发展中国家与后进企业借助全球化技术追赶行为,以及发达国家区域/地方创新系统内部结构与机理的分析(Mathews, 2006)。实际上,发展中国家与发达国家是经济全球化两大行为主体,中国、印度、巴西等发展中国家不仅通过吸引外商直接投资(FDI)建立了与发达国家的紧密联系,同时也通过区域政策打造了具有全球影响力的地方产业集群(Ernst, 2008);美国、德国、日本等发达国家在建立与发展区域创新系统的同时,也借助输出FDI拓展其国际影响力和提升其经营效益,全球—地方创新网络的概念应运而生。
本文认为,全球—地方创新网络是指特定产业、技术领域内,分布在世界各地并具有相关关联的创新主体为追求创新而建立的地方和全球网络合作联系的总和。与其他学者将地方与全球空间尺度相互割裂的分析框架不同,全球—地方创新网络是由多个地方创新网络相互联系而构建的全球网络系统。全球创新系统不是地方创新网络的简单叠加,而是多个地方创新网络通过跨越不同地方文化而重新组织的新型全球创新网络。创新主体包括跨国公司本地分支机构与本土独立企业、高等院校与科研机构、中介机构等主体。从分工协作角度看,高等院校与科研机构主要负责知识生产,表现形式主要为基础理论研究基地建设、高端人才培养及发表科技论文;企业与中介机构主要侧重于技术研发、市场开拓及学习模仿。其中,技术研发与市场开拓主要服务于开发满足市场新需求的新产品或新服务,表现形式为专利及新产品产值。学习模仿则与技术扩散、知识溢出和主动知识学习密切相关(Storper et al, 2004)。
迄今的创新网络研究成果多集中在区域内部网络结构特征、演化过程及其地理距离、社会距离、组织距离、认知距离等影响因子(Broekel et al, 2012; 吕拉昌等, 2015; 王兴平等, 2015)。如Gay等(2005)利用专利数据,分析了创新网络演化阶段及其特征,明确了创新主体数量、创新主体组成、联系通道种类和强度对创新网络形成和发展的影响。然而,这些研究均孤立地从区域的视角观察创新网络,而没有重视全球和地方2个空间尺度创新网络多种要素的互动;概念化描述、案例介绍和定量计算多,而理论研究深度不够;因此,迫切需要开展系统的理论创新(汪涛等, 2011)。
网络地位(network position)和区域网络能力(network capability)是指区域在全球网络结构中的位置和该区域吸收全球知识并转化为生产力的能力,是影响区域创新水平和演化路径的重要因素。Liefner等(2011)根据区域在全球创新网络的位置,将其分为以下4类：第1类为知识转化型区域。此类区域凭借创新网络中心位置而与相关区域进行频繁的知识交流,拥有较强的知识吸收和转化能力,创新成为促进区域经济增长的核心动力(如中国台湾新竹等);第2类为知识浪费型区域。此类区域拥有创新网络中心位置,有机会接触到最新的知识,但知识转化、利用能力不强,创新对区域经济增长推动不明显(如中国香港等);第3类为知识生产型区域。该区域自身知识生产能力强,创新活跃,虽位居创新网络的边缘位置,但凭借自身活跃的创新活动及其较强的产业化能力,推动了区域经济的快速发展(如美国硅谷及128号高速公路区等);第4类为知识忽视型区域。该区域位于创新网络的边缘位置,自身创新活动匮乏,创新对区域经济增长的影响十分有限,非洲大部分国家产业园区均属此种类型(图2)。亦即,创新网络中的区位、知识生产能力的强弱、知识产业化能力的高低成为决定全球—地方创新网络类型和特征的决定因素。
图2 创新网络位置与区域类型(
Fig.2 Network position and classification of regions (
与区域创新系统和全球创新网络理论相比,全球—地方创新网络对当今创新网络的现实解释力更强(图3)。基于区域创新系统理论,图3a中区域B为创新最为活跃的地方;基于全球创新网络理论,图3b中区域B是全球联系最为通畅的地方;而基于笔者提出的全球—地方创新网络理论,图3c中区域D拥有地方网络资本和全球网络资本的双重优势,是创新合作条件最佳的地方,比较符合当今国际创新网络发展演变的现实。
图3 区域创新系统、全球创新网络和全球—地方创新网络概念比较示意图
Fig.3 Comparison between regional innovation system, global innovation network, and glocal innovation network
全球—地方创新网络的形成是由地方技术联盟和国际技术协会多次协商决定的,通过创新主体间的联系来实现。其主体间的联系通道包括企业间垂直联系(产业链上下游联系)、企业与大学和科研院所的水平创新合作关系、企业内部不同部门之间的协同联系(表1)。地方技术联盟是地方尺度的重要组织机构,由来自同一地域文化的产学研主体借助产业链、创新链、价值链连接而成,主导该组织的龙头企业(local leadership)的影响力与权力主要来自其自身技术研发能力、企业规模以及就业和税收等对地方发展的贡献,在组织中的主导地位相对稳定。而国际技术协会是全球尺度的重要组织者,协会中的旗舰企业主要来自于自身技术创新能力与制订市场准入标准的资格和所在国政府的国际地缘政治地位。协会决议对旗舰企业及其所在国家的国际竞争力具有重要而长远的影响,“贡献”国际协会旗舰企业的地方联盟拥有更为广阔的国际视野和更大的开拓国际新市场机会,当然也承担更多为促进该行业企业与技术发展,特别是协调不同地域文化背景企业发展过程中出现矛盾的国际义务。
表1 创新网络结构与特征
Tab.1 Structure and characterristics of innovation networks
| 创新网络理论 | 主体特征 | 创新主体与合作方式 | 代表文献 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 全球创新网络 | “子公司—子公司”内部合作创新网络(intrafirm) | 跨国公司内部总公司、子公司之间垂直合作 | Yeung, 1994; Bathelt et al, 2014 |
| 地方创新网络 | “企业—企业” 外部合作创新网络(interfirm);“企业—高校”外部合作创新网络(firm-institution) | 客户、供应商、同行企业、高等院校、研究机构之间产学研水平合作 | Tether, 2002; Doloreux, 2004; Amara et al, 2005; Fischer et al, 2001; Fritsch et al, 2004; Nieto et al, 2010 |
| 全球—地方创新网络 | “联盟—协会”合作创新网络(umbrella organization) | 地方技术联盟、国际行业协会之间的企业间垂直合作与产学研水平合作并举 |
全球—地方创新网络可以促进不同空间尺度、不同类型的知识传播和转化。全球与地方创新网络中的知识特性和知识传播途径及作用机理各不相同。全球创新网络中传播的多为易于符号化和长距离传输的编码知识,多通过市场交易等正式联系来实现(表2)。而市场关系指购买机器、信息通信设备、软件和许可证等“嵌入式”知识购买。正式联系指通过R&D合作和研究公会等正式协议或合同而建立的创新合作关系。
表2 不同空间尺度的创新网络合作内容与方式
Tab.2 Cooperation of innovation networks at different scales
| 合作内容与方式 | 全球 | 地方/区域 |
|---|---|---|
| 合作内容 | 编码知识 | 缄默知识 |
| 联系方式 | 正式联系 | 非正式联系 |
而地方创新网络中传播的则多为缄默知识,缄默知识是支撑地方创新网络的关键因素之一(Gertler, 2003)。与全球创新网络中可编码知识长距离传输不同,缄默知识主要通过人的行为、信仰和参与表现出来,需要通过面对面等非正式交流方式来实现,这导致缄默知识难以在全球创新网络中发挥作用。
实际上,全球—地方创新网络编码知识和缄默知识之间也可转换。在创新主体的知识编码共享能力较强的条件下,可对缄默知识进行编码,进而实现跨区域的知识全球共享。另外,具有相同发展战略的潜在合作伙伴多位于遥远的外地,因而正式联系一般发生在全球创新网络层面。然而,潜在创新合作伙伴也可能近在咫尺,正式合作也可能出现在地方/区域创新网络层面(Malmberg et al, 2005)。需要特别指出的是,全球与地方2个创新网络的内部及其间都是通过知识流而相互联系起来的,众多地方/区域创新网络成为全球创新网络系统的重要子系统。
全球—地方创新网络的分析方法主要包括社会网络分析方法(social network analysis)、复杂网络分析方法(complex network analysis)、网络结构与能力的衡量方法(network structure and capability analysis)及网络知识测量方法(knowledge network measurement)。
Ter Wal等(2009)将社会网络分析方法引入到创新网络研究中。社会网络分析方法关注网络中不同社会单位(个人、群体、机构)之间关系的结构和属性,定量刻画网络各成员行为及其对网络发展演化的影响(邵云飞等, 2009; 潘峰华等, 2013)。社会网络分析法是创新网络研究中普遍采用的方法之一。李丹丹等(2013)运用社会网络分析方法,探讨不同时空尺度中国生物技术知识溢出网络拓扑和空间结构演变特征及其影响因素;吕国庆等(2014)采用社会网络多元回归和纵向网络分析方法,借助发明专利数据,定量分析了地理邻近、社会邻近及其对中国装备制造业创新网络形成与演化的影响;顾娜娜(2015)利用联合申请专利、合作发表科技论文以及产业技术联盟数据,运用社会网络分析法,对长江经济带装备制造业的创新网络特征及其演化过程进行了深入研究。社会网络分析方法是刻画创新网络结构的常用方法,在地方或全球创新网络结构分析和可视化表达方面发挥了重要作用,但尚缺乏对全球—地方创新网络结构和可视化方面的分析。
复杂网络分析方法针对具有自组织、自相似、吸引子、小世界、无标度中部分或全部性质的复杂网络的分析问题,定量刻画了创新网络结构、网络成员行为及其对网络形成与演化的影响(李金华等, 2006)。Hennemann(2011)利用集聚—随机—重新取样模型等复杂网络分析法,分析了全球知识创作和传播过程,定量刻画了中国科学知识生产系统融入全球创新网络的程度。Richter(1994)、Biggiero(2001)等学者利用复杂网络分析法,对区域创新网络自组织特征(即使在没有外力控制的前提下,网络能够自行组织、自行演化,逐步从无序走向有序,最终形成有结构的系统)进行了定量刻画与分析(蒋同明等, 2011)。
Barnes等(1983)首次使用“社会网络”的概念分析了挪威某渔村的社会结构,网络中心势和密度则是社会网络分析中测量网络权力集中程度和各主体之间关系密切程度的2个重要指标。在全球—地方创新网络研究中,密度可以衡量整体网络创新资源获取的能力和相对开放程度。网络中心势可以衡量一个网络内的旗舰企业对其他活动主体的控制与影响程度。
网络密度和中心势的数学表达式如下：
式中：D为网络密度;L为网络中实际存在的联结总数;g为网络中结点的个数;C为网络中心势;CDi代表节点的中心度;CDmax为图中的最大中心度数值。
此外,不同学者还根据创新网络的关系强度、关系持久度、关系质量、网络规模、网络范围和网络异质性等问题,发展了一系列创新网络的衡量指标与方法(表3)。
表3 创新网络衡量指标与方法
Tab.3 Indices of innovation network measurement
| 衡量指标 | 指标内涵 | 衡量方法 | 代表文献 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 关系强度 | 与主要创新伙伴合作交流的频率 | 区间划分法;分别赋值法;因素提取法 | Van de Ven et al, 1980; Zhao et al, 1995; Uzzi, 1997 |
| 关系持久度 | 与主要创新伙伴合作交流时间长短 | 区间划分法;分别赋值法;因素提取法 | Ostgaard et al, 1996; Shoham et al, 1997 |
| 关系质量 | 与主要创新伙伴的之间的满意、信任和承诺程度 | 李科特7分值量表;因素提取法 | Walter et al, 2003; Dorsch et al, 1998; Crosby et al, 1990 |
| 网络规模 | 主要的创新伙伴数量 | 过去N年主要的创新伙伴数量,按区间分别赋值 | Powell, 1998 |
| 网络范围 | 与主要创新合作伙伴交流方式之和 | 直接加总测算 | Burt et al, 1994; Greve et al, 2003 |
| 网络异质性 | 主要创新合作伙伴的差异程度(包括类型、背景、区域) | 按0~1赋值 | Agresti et al, 1978; Landström et al, 2001 |
早期网络研究方法并未充分考虑全球与地方/区域创新网络之间的有机联系。Huggins等(2014)在全球和地方网络定量化测度方面进行了大胆探索,并指出网络组织关系有助于主体获取区内外知识、提高创新预期收益和经营效益。这种网络组织关系可以称之为网络资本(network capital),与人力资本、R&D资本和物质资本一样,网络资本是促进区域发展的重要资源。网络资本可划分为本地网络资本和非本地网络资本,可通过每个单个联系的平均价值进行度量。本地网络资本计算公式为：
式中：WLr是区域r的本地网络资本规模;CLri是组织i在区域r内本地联系;
非本地网络资本计算公式为：
式中：WNLr是区域r的非本地网络资本规模;CNLri是区域r内组织i的非本地联系;
全球—地方创新网络的网络资本是本地网络资本与非本地网络资本之和：
然而,网络资本的实质是网络知识,其具有优越性、排他性和可混合性,在网络内传输过程中并非一成不变,而是随着环境条件的变化而发生流动方向、规模、性质和价值的改变。因此,网络知识可以成为测量全球—地方创新网络形态、结构、演变和机理的重要方法之一。
创新网络建设是世界众多国家和地区提升国际竞争力的战略选择之一,创新网络也是国内外经济地理学关注的热点研究议题之一。然而,从已经发表的论文来看,现有创新网络研究成果存在着以下几点明显不足：一是忽视了地方/区域创新网络和全球创新网络的有机联系,片面强调地方/区域创新网络或全球创新网络的重要性;二是过于强调跨国公司在全球创新网络的主导作用,忽视了行业协会与技术联盟等组织对地方和全球创新网络的交互影响;三是过于倚重联合专利、合作论文等大数据,进行创新网络结构的测算和模拟。或者,过于倚重访谈、问卷等一手资料,进行创新网络中典型案例的定性分析,缺乏对定量和定性的有机结合(李二玲等, 2009)。
实际上,全球创新网络与地方创新网络存在着密切的相互联系,不能将二者简单割裂开来。全球创新网络不仅是地方创新网络的简单叠加,而且是多个地方创新网络通过跨越不同地方文化而重新组织的新型全球创新网络;地方创新网络是全球创新网络的子系统,其绩效高低在一定程度上取决于其与全球创新网络相互交流的频率和水平,全球创新网络的功能强弱在很大程度上取决于地方创新网络能力的大小;从组织层面看,位于同一文化背景下的地方创新网络与位于多种文化交叉背景下的全球创新网络明显不同,但行业协会和技术联盟与成员之间的多次协商成为全球—地方创新网络的重要组织方式;从研究方法看,现有的社会网络分析方法、复杂网络分析方法以及网络结构与能力方法仅能解决全球—地方创新网络的某一个侧面的问题,而网络知识的测量方法则能较好地实现定性分析结论与统计计算结论的融合(Salavisa et al, 2012),能较好地刻画与模拟全球—地方创新网络的形态、结构、演变和机理。
全球—地方创新网络具有以下三大优势：第一,其研究全球范围内和不同地点的跨国公司内部各子公司与区域内各公司之间的知识合作,跨越了地理边界和企业边界,较好地解释了全球知识传递和地方主体之间合作以及全球与地方的互动;第二,全球—地方创新网络关注全球范围内的知识整合问题,其研究有利于探讨国际组织、企业文化及地方法规等因素的互动演化,有利于解析网络中各主体的创新行为和知识流动(Ernst, 2009);第三,全球—地方创新网络分析方法较好地实现了定性与定量、局部与整体之间的互补,较为准确地表达了网络特征。
因此,为了进一步丰富全球—地方创新网络的理论和方法,有必要开展以下研究：一是全球—地方创新网络机理与区域经济增长之间的互动关系;二是不同产业领域的全球—地方创新网络的比较分析;三是借助大量的实证案例,运用网络知识测量这一新方法进行实证案例研究;四是开展基于中国国情、中国视角的全球—地方创新网络研究,为提升中国创新能力和推动中国创新地理学的发展服务(Liu et al, 2002)。
The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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全球化的"时空压缩"特征降低了要素流动的空间成本,而为组织和协调跨国经济活动而出现的跨国公司与国际组织,导致象征权利范畴的领土边界对经济、文化和政治的影响力不断削弱,进而引发了极端全球主义式的"地理终结"论调。人文地理学者结合全球化的特征,通过改变尺度结构,明确了全球尺度涉及的主体与内容,凸显出地域单元的意义,避免了全球尺度的抽象理解,从而反驳了地理终结论,形成了两个关键认识:1尺度建构不一定建立在相对性的基础上并构成垂直体系,基于关系建构的全球尺度更契合不同主体和空间联系日趋紧密的特征;2全球化与地方化过程是并存的。全球化并不意味着尺度的垂直叠加,而是全球与地方之间的复杂联系。这两个关键认识为人文地理学参与全球化研究形成了独特的视角:一方面,学者们运用立体网络思维,以关键主体与空间为节点、以关系为纽带,实现"超越边界"式的分析;另一方面,全球化与地方化并存的理念也促使城市与区域发展研究从单纯强调区域差异转向探讨区域内外相互作用,为城市与区域治理提供了新思路。
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全球化的"时空压缩"特征降低了要素流动的空间成本,而为组织和协调跨国经济活动而出现的跨国公司与国际组织,导致象征权利范畴的领土边界对经济、文化和政治的影响力不断削弱,进而引发了极端全球主义式的"地理终结"论调。人文地理学者结合全球化的特征,通过改变尺度结构,明确了全球尺度涉及的主体与内容,凸显出地域单元的意义,避免了全球尺度的抽象理解,从而反驳了地理终结论,形成了两个关键认识:1尺度建构不一定建立在相对性的基础上并构成垂直体系,基于关系建构的全球尺度更契合不同主体和空间联系日趋紧密的特征;2全球化与地方化过程是并存的。全球化并不意味着尺度的垂直叠加,而是全球与地方之间的复杂联系。这两个关键认识为人文地理学参与全球化研究形成了独特的视角:一方面,学者们运用立体网络思维,以关键主体与空间为节点、以关系为纽带,实现"超越边界"式的分析;另一方面,全球化与地方化并存的理念也促使城市与区域发展研究从单纯强调区域差异转向探讨区域内外相互作用,为城市与区域治理提供了新思路。
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The structural characteristics of knowledge spillover networks based on different spatial and temporal scales [J].Magsci 摘要
<p>知识溢出的多空间尺度耦合、空间知识溢出的测度以及空间知识溢出的机制是近期国内外有关知识溢出地理效应研究的主要新动向。借助科学计量学追踪知识溢出的方法,以2000~2009 年被国际ISI 及国内重庆维普数据库收录的,中国大学和科研院所等机构在生物技术领域合作发表科学论文的信息为数据源,从社会网络的视角,运用社会网络分析和GIS 空间分析方法,分别以国家、省份和城市为单元,从国际、国家和长三角层面(区域),分析2000 年以来,中国大学和科研院所知识溢出网络的拓扑结构和空间结构变动特征,并从地理距离、社会距离、认知距离、组织距离等方面探讨影响知识溢出效应的机理。研究发现:① 2003~2004 年为知识溢出网络发展的拐点期;② 国际和国家层面网络接近小世界网络,长三角层面的网络体现出更多的随机网络特征;③ 知识在国际层面的空间溢出具有明显的路径依赖性,主要受到社会距离和组织距离的影响;④ 在国家层面呈现由三角形向钻石形发展的趋势,随着网络发育的日益成熟,地理距离的影响逐步减弱,社会距离和组织距离的影响得以加强;⑤ 在长三角层面总体上呈现三点一线特征,地理距离在区域尺度的影响最为显著,知识溢出既遵循了等级扩散的规律,也体现了距离衰减的特点。</p>
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欠发达农区传统制造业集群的网络演化分析: 以河南省虞城县南庄村钢卷尺产业集群为例 [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00205-2_9 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<p>本文以河南省虞城县南庄村钢卷尺产业集群为例,基于企业问卷调查数据,运用社会网络分析法,通过对比企业在初创阶段的衍生网络与现阶段的情感网络、咨询网络和合作网络,探讨了欠发达农区传统制造业集群中网络的形成和演化过程。研究发现相对于偏重技术联系的发达地区高技术集群来说,欠发达农区传统制造业集群网络的形成和演化更具有内生性和自组织规律。在集群成长和网络演进的过程中,集群网络中的核心关系受农村社区聚落环境的影响,并随农区企业规模、地位和能力的改变而演变。依此集群网络的形成和演化经历4个阶段,即家族或泛家族网络阶段、内部分工生产网络阶段、本地创新网络阶段和全球供应链网络阶段,各类型网络在集群发展的不同阶段起着不同的作用。</p>
The evolution of networks in traditional manufacturing clusters of undeveloped rural areas: The case of steel measuring tape cluster in Nanzhuang Village, Yucheng County, Henan Province [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00205-2_9 URL Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<p>本文以河南省虞城县南庄村钢卷尺产业集群为例,基于企业问卷调查数据,运用社会网络分析法,通过对比企业在初创阶段的衍生网络与现阶段的情感网络、咨询网络和合作网络,探讨了欠发达农区传统制造业集群中网络的形成和演化过程。研究发现相对于偏重技术联系的发达地区高技术集群来说,欠发达农区传统制造业集群网络的形成和演化更具有内生性和自组织规律。在集群成长和网络演进的过程中,集群网络中的核心关系受农村社区聚落环境的影响,并随农区企业规模、地位和能力的改变而演变。依此集群网络的形成和演化经历4个阶段,即家族或泛家族网络阶段、内部分工生产网络阶段、本地创新网络阶段和全球供应链网络阶段,各类型网络在集群发展的不同阶段起着不同的作用。</p>
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创新网络的演化模型 [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2053.2006.01.024 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
本文将复杂网络理论引入到创新 网络领域,以定量地描绘创新网络的拓扑结构。首先提出了有关创新网络形成的五点假设,然后基于这五点假设依次建立了三个创新网络的演化模型。同时,提出了 一个定量刻画复杂网络小世界性程度的公式,以小世界性程度为指标比较分析了各个演化模型。演化模型的建立对于创新网络其他方面的研究具有重要的意义。
An evolutionary model of networks of innovators [J].https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2053.2006.01.024 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
本文将复杂网络理论引入到创新 网络领域,以定量地描绘创新网络的拓扑结构。首先提出了有关创新网络形成的五点假设,然后基于这五点假设依次建立了三个创新网络的演化模型。同时,提出了 一个定量刻画复杂网络小世界性程度的公式,以小世界性程度为指标比较分析了各个演化模型。演化模型的建立对于创新网络其他方面的研究具有重要的意义。
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| [7] |
长三角装备制造业产学研创新网络体系的演化分析 [J].
<p>利用国家重点产业专利信息服务平台，对长三角装备制造业联合申请发明专利数据进行检索，绘制了长三角地区企业、厂、公司与高校、科研机构之间的产学研创新网络，从节点、部类、城市、区域等4 个层面，采用中心度、网络密度等网络结构指标，对1985~2010 年长三角装备制造业产学研创新网络的结构及空间特征进行分析。研究发现，长三角装备制造业产学研创新网络的演化具有明显的阶段性特征，中心度较高的成员多为高校，区域内各城市的产学研空间分异特征明显，地理邻近、行政邻近及知识规模邻近是影响行为主体建立创新合作联系重要的因素，网络建构处于初级阶段。</p>
Innovation network system of industry-university-research institute of equipment manufacturing industry in the Changjiang River Delta [J].
<p>利用国家重点产业专利信息服务平台，对长三角装备制造业联合申请发明专利数据进行检索，绘制了长三角地区企业、厂、公司与高校、科研机构之间的产学研创新网络，从节点、部类、城市、区域等4 个层面，采用中心度、网络密度等网络结构指标，对1985~2010 年长三角装备制造业产学研创新网络的结构及空间特征进行分析。研究发现，长三角装备制造业产学研创新网络的演化具有明显的阶段性特征，中心度较高的成员多为高校，区域内各城市的产学研空间分异特征明显，地理邻近、行政邻近及知识规模邻近是影响行为主体建立创新合作联系重要的因素，网络建构处于初级阶段。</p>
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| [8] |
中国主要城市间的创新联系研究 [J].
<p>对国内外城市创新联系综述及理论分析的基础上,通过一组测度指标,界定了城市外向创新联系规模,采用引力模型,测度了中国主要城市间的创新联系强度及格局。研究表明:中国主要城市创新联系格局基本为东强西弱,东部地区城市创新联系格局显现出以上海、南京、杭州为顶角,以北京、天津,以广州、深圳为2 个底角的创新联系“金三角”。城市创新联系在空间上呈现明显的等级性:北京、上海、广州、深圳、天津、重庆等与中国的许多城市有广泛的创新联系,具有全国创新影响力;南京、杭州、武汉、郑州、济南、青岛、大连、西安等成为地区性的城市创新联系节点,具有区域性的创新影响力。在创新联系较强的东部沿海主要的经济圈,珠江三角洲经济圈城市间创新联系最强,但外向辐射力有限;长江三角洲经济圈内部创新联系较强,并与环渤海经济圈有较强的创新联系, 环渤海经济圈内部北京、天津、唐山具有较强的创新联系,外向辐射以长江三角洲的城市为主。对中国创新联系格局规律的揭示,更进一步强化了中国创新城市体系中城市的作用,并为规划与建立中国创新都市圈提供依据。</p>
The innovation linkage among Chinese major cities [J].
<p>对国内外城市创新联系综述及理论分析的基础上,通过一组测度指标,界定了城市外向创新联系规模,采用引力模型,测度了中国主要城市间的创新联系强度及格局。研究表明:中国主要城市创新联系格局基本为东强西弱,东部地区城市创新联系格局显现出以上海、南京、杭州为顶角,以北京、天津,以广州、深圳为2 个底角的创新联系“金三角”。城市创新联系在空间上呈现明显的等级性:北京、上海、广州、深圳、天津、重庆等与中国的许多城市有广泛的创新联系,具有全国创新影响力;南京、杭州、武汉、郑州、济南、青岛、大连、西安等成为地区性的城市创新联系节点,具有区域性的创新影响力。在创新联系较强的东部沿海主要的经济圈,珠江三角洲经济圈城市间创新联系最强,但外向辐射力有限;长江三角洲经济圈内部创新联系较强,并与环渤海经济圈有较强的创新联系, 环渤海经济圈内部北京、天津、唐山具有较强的创新联系,外向辐射以长江三角洲的城市为主。对中国创新联系格局规律的揭示,更进一步强化了中国创新城市体系中城市的作用,并为规划与建立中国创新都市圈提供依据。</p>
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| [9] |
全球—地方联结与产业集群的技术学习: 以河南许昌发制品产业为例 [J].
<p>以产业区理论、管制理论和全球生产网络理论为基础,以学习创新为核心,构建了一个融生产体系与社会生产体制、制度与协调机制、地方生产网络、全球生产网络“四位一体”的学习型产业区分析框架;运用该框架,以河南许昌发制品产业集群为案例,研究了全球—地方网络联结的方式、动态及其对技术学习的影响。研究发现,通过全球与地方生产网络的建构和有机联结,传统产业集群的技术学习是可以从“低端道路”迈向“高端道路”的,发展学习型产业区应作为我国经济发展与技术创新的一项重大战略和政策。</p>
Global-local nexus and technological learning in industrial cluster: A case study of hair-goods industry in Xuchang, Henan Province [J].
<p>以产业区理论、管制理论和全球生产网络理论为基础,以学习创新为核心,构建了一个融生产体系与社会生产体制、制度与协调机制、地方生产网络、全球生产网络“四位一体”的学习型产业区分析框架;运用该框架,以河南许昌发制品产业集群为案例,研究了全球—地方网络联结的方式、动态及其对技术学习的影响。研究发现,通过全球与地方生产网络的建构和有机联结,传统产业集群的技术学习是可以从“低端道路”迈向“高端道路”的,发展学习型产业区应作为我国经济发展与技术创新的一项重大战略和政策。</p>
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社会网络分析方法在地缘政治领域的应用 [J].
社会网络分析方法是近20年来 发展十分迅速的一种研究方法,它起源于社会学,并逐渐渗透到各个社会科学。地缘政治是从地理视角来探究国家间各种关系,这与社会网络分析对"关系"的关注 非常吻合。介绍了社会网络主要理论和分析方法,重点通过文献梳理总结社会网络分析方法在地缘政治研究中的应用,发现已有研究内容主要集中在两个方面:①用 社会网络分析定量、形象地刻画国家政治、经济关系网络与其动态变化;②分析不同网络带来的效应以及对国家政治、经济关系的影响等。相对国外而言,国内在此 领域研究尚显不足,未来可以借助社会网络分析方法来研究中国的地缘政治环境。
Social network analysis in geo-politics studies [J].
社会网络分析方法是近20年来 发展十分迅速的一种研究方法,它起源于社会学,并逐渐渗透到各个社会科学。地缘政治是从地理视角来探究国家间各种关系,这与社会网络分析对"关系"的关注 非常吻合。介绍了社会网络主要理论和分析方法,重点通过文献梳理总结社会网络分析方法在地缘政治研究中的应用,发现已有研究内容主要集中在两个方面:①用 社会网络分析定量、形象地刻画国家政治、经济关系网络与其动态变化;②分析不同网络带来的效应以及对国家政治、经济关系的影响等。相对国外而言,国内在此 领域研究尚显不足,未来可以借助社会网络分析方法来研究中国的地缘政治环境。
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社会网络分析方法及其在创新研究中的运用 [J].
<p>研究了社会网络分析的含义、相关理论及其方法的发展轨迹，并且从研究方法、研究内容及研究数量等方面探讨了社会网络分析方法在创新研究中的运用。运用社会网络分析方法更多地倾向于对网络中互动节点间关系改变的研究，而不是对节点本身的研究。社会网络分析与传统计量经济学方法相结合、与案例研究相结合，分析网络结构特征对创新以及其他组织问题的影响，可以更深刻地揭示研究问题的本质。</p>
Social network analysis and its application to innovative research [J].
<p>研究了社会网络分析的含义、相关理论及其方法的发展轨迹，并且从研究方法、研究内容及研究数量等方面探讨了社会网络分析方法在创新研究中的运用。运用社会网络分析方法更多地倾向于对网络中互动节点间关系改变的研究，而不是对节点本身的研究。社会网络分析与传统计量经济学方法相结合、与案例研究相结合，分析网络结构特征对创新以及其他组织问题的影响，可以更深刻地揭示研究问题的本质。</p>
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知识网络空间结构演化及对NIS建设的启示: 以我国生物技术知识为例 [J].
以重庆维普期刊全文数据库中2000~2009年发表于生物技术领域的合著论文作者信息统计数据为数据源,从省级层面运用UCINET和ArcGIS软件分析知识网络的空间结构特征及其演化规律。近十年来生物技术知识网络经历了由萌芽阶段向扩张阶段和成熟阶段转变的过程,知识的扩散方式由接触扩散为主向等级扩散为主转变,知识交流的密集区在空间上相应地经历了由分散到集中到再分散过程,网络节点间地理临近和组织临近的相互作用共同推动着网络空间结构的演化。研究表明:从缩短知识主体的社会距离和优化创新资源的空间配置两个角度,对我国国家创新系统推进生物技术发展提出建议,以提高科技投入产出效率和空间配置效率。
Spatial structure evolution of knowledge network and its impact on the NIS: Case study of biotechnology in China [J].
以重庆维普期刊全文数据库中2000~2009年发表于生物技术领域的合著论文作者信息统计数据为数据源,从省级层面运用UCINET和ArcGIS软件分析知识网络的空间结构特征及其演化规律。近十年来生物技术知识网络经历了由萌芽阶段向扩张阶段和成熟阶段转变的过程,知识的扩散方式由接触扩散为主向等级扩散为主转变,知识交流的密集区在空间上相应地经历了由分散到集中到再分散过程,网络节点间地理临近和组织临近的相互作用共同推动着网络空间结构的演化。研究表明:从缩短知识主体的社会距离和优化创新资源的空间配置两个角度,对我国国家创新系统推进生物技术发展提出建议,以提高科技投入产出效率和空间配置效率。
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城际创新联系的尺度差异特征分析: 以长三角核心区为例 [J].A study of discriminative characteristics of intercity innovation linkage at different scales: A case study of Yangtze River Delta [J]. |
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Social capital: Prospects for a new concept [J].https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2002.5922314 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
A growing number of sociologists, political scientists, economists, and organizational theorists have invoked the concept of social capital in the search for answers to a broadening range of questions being confronted in their own fields. Seeking to clarify the concept and help assess its utility for organizational theory, we synthesize the theoretical research undertaken in these various disciplines and develop a common conceptual framework that identifies the sources, benefits, risks, and contingencies of social capital.
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Sources of information as determinants of novelty of innovation in manufacturing firms: Evidence from the 1999 statistics Canada innovation survey [J]. |
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Graph theory in network analysis [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(83)90026-6 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
For many centuries ideas now embodied in graph theory have been implicit in lay discussions of networks. The explicit linking of graph theory and network analysis began only in 1953 and has been rediscovered many times since. Analysts have taken from graph theory mainly concepts and terminology; its theorems, though potentially valuable for the analysis of real data, are generally neglected. Network analysts thus make too little use of the theory of graphs. Some instances of the use of theorems for network analysis are noted.
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Self-organizing processes in building entrepreneurial networks: A theoretical and empirical investigation [J].URL 摘要
Self-organization is a property of social systems, and its recognition can give a remarkable contribution to the theory of entrepreneurship and to the analysis of inter-organizational networks. While literature on the classification of inter-firm networks and on their (dis)advantages is relatively abundant, there is much less on the processes of their formation and development. Since the convenience of building inter-firm networks is often uncertain and ambiguous, it involves social-psychological aspects and is based on personal relationships. This is particularly true in the case of small business networks, where the small firm size makes firm networks coincide with entrepreneurial networks. This characteristic can be extended to industrial districts, which are systems emerging from the interplay between small business networks. Industrial districts are weakly hierarchical organizations, which present the typical dual nature of social systems: the systemic nature, which is manifested more at the unity level, considering the district as a whole, and the subjective behavior of its members, which can play a crucial role either in triggering the district or in its evolutionary patterns. Such a double nature becomes a powerful engine of knowledge creation/transfer when organizations are recursive and self-organizing, and when the emerging values promote cooperation and trust. These co-evolutionary, recursive and self-organizing aspects have been synthesized in Nonaka's concept of 鈥榖a鈥. The cases discussed here deal with recursive processes in the formation of entrepreneurial networks in the biomedical district and in the formation of the district itself, which are seen as partially self-organizing processes. In the perspective considering knowledge as embodied in human beings and created by their social interactions, this paper concerns self-organizing and knowledge-creating processes at district and network levels.
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Knowledge networks in the Dutch aviation industry: The proximity paradox [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbr010 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
The importance of geographical proximity for interaction and knowledge sharing has been discussed extensively in economic geography in recent years. There is increasing consensus that it is just one out of many types of proximities that might be relevant. We argue that proximity may be a crucial driver for agents to connect and exchange knowledge, but too much proximity between these agents on any of the dimensions might harm their innovative performance at the same time. In a study on knowledge networks in the Dutch aviation industry, we test this so-called proximity paradox empirically. We find evidence that the proximity paradox holds to some degree. Our study clearly shows that cognitive, social and geographical proximity are crucial for explaining the knowledge network of the Dutch aviation industry. But while it takes cognitive, social and geographical proximity to exchange knowledge, we found evidence that proximity lowers firms's innovative performance, but only in the cognitive dimension.
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Spaces and scales of innovation [J].https://doi.org/10.1191/030913201682688940 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract: Contemporary research on innovative processes makes use of a range of scales, from the global to the regional/local. In addition, network-based approaches have introduced a non-territorially bounded dimension to studies of innovation. While much of the latter has, to date, been concerned with local networks, recent work has pointed to the importance of non-local interconnections. This paper seeks to build upon such insights suggesting that greater attention be given to extra-local connections in studies of innovation. We explore ways in which extra-local interconnection may be extended beyond the globalization of formalized R&D by, and between, transnational corporations (TNCs), which is the overwhelming preoccupation of existing research. The paper is divided into two main parts. The first consists of a review of work on the three key scales of innovation. The second considers the role of firms and individuals as key actors in systems of innovation, and suggests how network-based approaches may offer the best way for analysing how these actors operate through and across spatial scales. In conclusion, we emphasize the need to further investigate non-TNC-based dimensions of extra-local interconnection.
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Measuring a large network quickly [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(94)90001-9 URL 摘要
We describe work in which we used three days of interviewing to identify and measure the network among 200 people significant in a complex production process. The capture-recapture strategy should be useful in other settings: (1) Conduct survey network interviews with people (informants) positioned in the study population such that their contacts overlap to provide recaptured relations. (2) Estimate reliability from data consistency across recaptures. (3) Triangulate relation response categories to assign quantitative scores to the categories. (4) Use reliability correlates to weight recaptured relations in the final network pooled across interviews. (5) Extrapolate from the known strengths of the captured relations to define the uncaptured relations.
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Regional innovation systems, clusters, and the knowledge economy [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/10.4.945 URL 摘要
This paper presents a systematic account of the idea and content of regional innovation systems following discoveries made by regional scientists, economic geographers and innovation analysts. It considers the conditions and criteria for empirical recognition and judgment as to whether scientifically analysed, concrete cases of innovation activity warrant the designation of regional innovation system. The paper concludes by claiming that the source for Europe's innovation gap with the United States rests on excess reliance on public intervention, which signifies major market failure. The future will require widespread evolution of public innovation support systems along with stronger institutional and organizational support from the private sector. Copyright 2001 by Oxford University Press.
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Relationship quality in services selling: An interpersonal influence perspective [J]. |
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Geographers and ‘globalization’: (Yet) Another missed boat [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0020-2754.2004.00111.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Over the years, geographers have developed a disturbing - even dysfunctional - habit of missing out on important intellectual and politically significant debates, even those in which geographers would seem to have a major role to play. The syndrome of processes currently bundled together within the term `globalization' is intrinsically geographical, as are the outcomes of such processes. Yet, once again, it seems, we are not, as a discipline, centrally involved in what are clearly very `big issues' indeed. The purpose of this paper is to explore, in the context of ongoing globalization debates, the bases of this undesirable situation and to consider what might be done to redress it in ways that could both enhance intra- and interdisciplinarity and also make a contribution towards building a better world.
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Regional networks of small and medium sized enterprises: Evidence from the metropolitan area of Ottawa in Canada [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/0965431042000183923 URL 摘要
Innovation is currently seen as a process which results from various interactions among different actors. Recent theories of innovation emphasize clusters and geographical proximity as loci of knowledge, development and exchange, critical to higher levels of innovation and regional growth. As a consequence, there is a territorial dimension to innovation. This article investigates the innovation activities and networking of 53 small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in Ottawa, Canada. Taking its point of departure from the proliferating literature on the localized nature of innovation processes, the article sets out to answer three empirical questions: How intensively are SMEs engaging in innovation activities? To what extent do they interact during innovation process activities? What is the relevance of spatial proximity in networking, and what is the relative importance of localized cooperation as compared to non鈥恖ocalized cooperation. The results revealed SMEs rely as much on external networks of cust...
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The role of relationship quality in the stratification of vendors as perceived by customers [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070398262004 URL 摘要
Companies implement preferred supplier programs to reduce their vendor relationships to a reasonable few. Consequently, vendors who do not effectively manage their customer-based relationships are strong candidates for deletion from a customer list of long-term suppliers. The emergence of preferred supplier programs suggests that businesses are beginning to formally recognize and reward differences between their qualified vendors. Vendor stratification is proposed as a framework for understanding the evolution of preferred vendor programs. With the growing interest in relationship marketing, a study was conducted to empirically examine the extent to which businesses use relationship quality perceptions to differentiate their qualified vendors. The findings support the notion that relationship quality is a higher-order construct that can be used as a basis for developing vendor stratification systems. The article concludes with a discussion of the managerial and research implications of the study findings.
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Global production networks and the changing geography of innovation systems: Implications for developing countries [J]. |
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Innovation offshoring and Asia's electronics industry: The new dynamics of global networks [J]. |
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A new geography of knowledge in the electronics industry? Asia’s role in global innovation networks[R]. Washington: |
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Global production networks, knowledge diffusion, and local capability formation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00072-0 URL 摘要
By Dieter Ernst and Linsu Kim; Global production networks, knowledge diffusion, and local capability formation
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Metropolitan innovation systems: Theory and evidence from three metropolitan regions in Europe [M].
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Innovation, regional knowledge spillovers and R&D cooperation [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(03)00123-9 Magsci 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">We investigate the impact of knowledge spillovers and R&D cooperation on innovation activities in three German regions. We begin by estimating the knowledge-production function in order to test for interregional difference with regard to the efficiency of innovation activities. In a second step, we analyze the contribution of spillovers from R&D effort of other private firms and of public research institutions to explain these differences. The inclusion of variables for R&D cooperation in the model indicates that R&D cooperation is only of relatively minor importance as a medium for knowledge spillover.</p>
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Innovation and network structural dynamics: Study of the alliance network of a major sector of the biotechnology industry [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2005.07.001 URL 摘要
We study the large-scale topology and dynamics of maps of alliances in a major segment of the biotechnology industry. The results point to the joint dynamics of network and innovation. The study demonstrates that the network is scale-free. Competition for links translates into a dynamic exponent that seems to follow the fitter -get-richer model of network growth, with preferential attachment to firms holding key technologies. This network also shows a small-world effect. This work highlights the strategic importance of understanding the growth dynamics and structure of collaboration networks for the building of leading positions in industries led by sustained radical change.
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The governance of global value chains [J].https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290500049805 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Abstract This article builds a theoretical framework to help explain governance patterns in global value chains. It draws on three streams of literature – transaction costs economics, production networks, and technological capability and firm-level learning – to identify three variables that play a large role in determining how global value chains are governed and change. These are: (1) the complexity of transactions, (2) the ability to codify transactions, and (3) the capabilities in the supply-base. The theory generates five types of global value chain governance – hierarchy, captive, relational, modular, and market – which range from high to low levels of explicit coordination and power asymmetry. The article highlights the dynamic and overlapping nature of global value chain governance through four brief industry case studies: bicycles, apparel, horticulture and electronics.
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Tacit knowledge and the economic geography of context, or the undefinable tacitness of being (there) [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/3.1.75 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Offers a critical analysis of the implicit and explicit economic geographies of tacit knowledge, with emphasis on the relationship between tacit knowledge and institutions. Review of the standard definitions of tacit knowledge; Reasons for its importance in scholarship on economic change; Prospects for overcoming tacit knowledge problems.
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Social networks and entrepreneurship [J].
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The role of transnational corporations in the Chinese science and technology network [J].https://doi.org/10.3112/erdkunde.2011.01.06 Magsci 摘要
Cooperation in knowledge creation processes in China is becoming increasingly diverse. Transnational corporations (TNCs) play a crucial role in innovation and the dissemination of new ideas. They are sought-after cooperation partners for an entire set of other actors (e.g., domestic firms and universities), as they are capable of bringing in the most recent knowledge from abroad. However, it is assumed that they rarely work with domestic public research organisations or universities. Following comprehensive reforms of the science and technology system (S&T) in China and strategic changes in the global TNC organisation, public institutions are more likely to serve as potential cooperation partners in creating new knowledge not only for Chinese companies, but also for TNCs. Therefore, a new variety of exchange processes can be expected, with TNCs occupying a prominent position in the knowledge creation system in China. This paper will analyse the network topology and the position of international firms for the creation of research-oriented knowledge in China's S&T-system. Co-authored publications serve as a proxy indicator for cooperation and knowledge exchange. Between 2003 and 2007, more than 6,000 articles were co-authored with employees of companies in China. These data have been used to create a network that will be analysed using state-of-the-art network science methods. This analysis thus offers a unique insight into the role of TNCs for the Chinese scientific knowledge network.
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A network-based view of regional growth [J].https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbt012 URL 摘要
The need to better understand the mechanisms underlying regional growth patterns is widely recognized. This article argues that regional growth is partly a function of the value created through inter-organizational flows of knowledge within and across regions. It is proposed that investment in calculative networks by organizations to access knowledge is a form of capital, termed network capital, which should be incorporated into regional growth models. The article seeks to develop a framework to capture the value of network capital within these models based on the spatial configuration and the nature of the knowledge flowing through networks.
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Theoretical foundations of Swedish entrepreneurship and small-business research [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-5221(99)00030-5 URL 摘要
Our main purpose is to test the proposition that Swedish entrepreneurship and small-business research has established a theoretical platform of its own over the last quarter of a century. In order to cope with that challenge we have to provide answers to some basic questions, for example: (i) What theoretical basic elements can be identified in Swedish entrepreneurship and small-business research? (ii) Can we detect shifts in the theoretical basis over time? (iii) To what extent does the research accumulate to form a unified body of knowledge? References used in doctoral theses within this field of research between 1970 and 1995 constitute the basis for the analysis. The results of the study show that the research field is deeply rooted in the sphere of business administration, primarily in organisation and decision theory, and in a strong qualitative research tradition. The field is still very fragmented -- it is difficult to identify any "core literature" and the number of different journals used in the research is large. However, during the last decade some interesting changes have taken place: (i) interest has grown among researchers in the field to seek the roots of the subject, which means that more references are made to the "classical works" in the research field, (ii) the academisation of the field has increased, as manifested in the growing use of scientific journals, as against official publications and "grey research literature", and (iii) theoretical linkages to other fields of research (apart from business administration) have grown stronger. The results indicate greater specialisation and more attention paid to nuances in the research due to clearer definitions of important concepts and the generation of a vocabulary and models specific to the field. Also, the field is in the process of distancing itself from a purely technical approach to knowledge. However, we will still reject the initial proposition that the research field has developed a robust theoretical platform. The citation analysis provides an emergent pattern in the development of entrepreneurship and small-business research. In the seventies the research was empirically orientated, with a view to describing the phenomenon and making it visible in different contexts. The eighties were characterised by the positioning of entrepreneurship and small-business research within business administration, whereas the nineties have been marked by an attempt to create a separate identity as a distinct academic field of study. This is reflected in a growing interest in the origins of this field of research and a broadening of the research beyond the frame set by business administration. We believe that a favourable platform for a future specialisation of research challenges and integration of lines of thought is thereby created, which in turn will help the research field to mature and to develop its own theories and methodologies.
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Structural holes and new dimensions of distance: The spatial configuration of the scientific knowledge network of China’s optical technology sector [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a43100 URL 摘要
ABSTRACT This paper analyses the spatial configurations of knowledge networks and their overlap with spatial concentrations, such as urban agglomerations. It proposes a typology of spatial concentrations in knowledge networks, and uses data from academic coauthorships in the field of optical technology and complex network analysis to show how China’s regions and research organisations are located in national and international knowledge exchanges. This spatial representation and analysis of a large-scale knowledge network provide an enhanced view of the quality of network structures. Access to different pools of knowledge is unevenly distributed, allowing some regions to combine knowledge and create learning opportunities that do not stem from a spatial concentration of activity in science, but rather from their positions in the network.
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Rethinking the development of economic geography in Mainland China [J].https://doi.org/10.1068/a34253 URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Economic geography is a discipline encompassing diverse scopes and approaches. As such, it is not easy to achieve well-founded dialogues between economic geographers from different countries, though such dialogues are necessary for establishing a well-developed platform of discussion. The authors attempt to help scholars from other countries understand the development of economic geography in China by showing how such development has been affected by the country's institutional and economic conditions. They first introduce the context in which economic geography has developed in China and discuss changes in the definition of economic geography in the country. They then examine post-1949 development of economic geography in China in terms of research orientations or tasks, funding, and organization. The authors argue that the development of economic geography is embedded in a broad socioeconomic and institutional context and that this context is key to understanding the development of economic geography in different countries.
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Dragon multinationals: New players in 21st century globalization [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-006-6113-0 Magsci [本文引用: 1] 摘要
<a name="Abs1"></a>This review article starts from the question: how does the global business system appear to a challenger firm, and how have challenger Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) from formerly peripheral areas such as the Asia Pacific established themselves successfully, against the sometimes fierce resistance of incumbents? To answer this question, the review develops an argument concerning the pluralistic character of the process of globalization, as contrasted with the conventional account that sees global processes creating uniformity and convergence. This alternative account is based on a review of the experiences of latecomer and newcomer MNEs, particularly those from the Asia Pacific—such as Acer, Ispat International, Li & Fung and the Hong Leong Group—that are dubbed “Dragon Multinationals.” I argue that the innovative features that these MNEs share, such as their accelerated internationalization, strategic innovation and organizational innovation, fit particularly well with the characteristics of the emergent global economy as one of complex inter-firm linkages. The core proposition of the review is that this complementarity between the characteristics of the emergent global economy and latecomer and newcomer strategic and organizational innovations is what drives the remarkable success of these Asia Pacific firms in establishing themselves as serious international players. Such a proposition carries implications for the process of globalization as well as for the dominant frameworks utilized in International Business. The review argues that Dragon Multinationals adopt a different perspective to the resources accessed through internationalization, and that this requires a rethink of the criteria normally utilized in resource-based accounts of strategy. The challenger firm internationalizing in order to access resources also poses a challenge to the dominant OLI (ownership, locational, internalization) account of multinational advantage. Thus it is argued that the question posed at the outset goes to the core of the IB frameworks, and thereby counts as one of the ‘big questions’ that should guide research in IB in the 21<sup>st</sup> century.
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Technological collaboration: Bridging the innovation gap between small and large firms [J]. |
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New venture growth and personal networks [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(95)00161-1 URL 摘要
This article presents the results of a survey of 159 owner-managed companies in England. The research question explores the effectiveness of personal networks in terms of firm performance and growth. Multiple regression confirmed the importance of networks for company performance and development.
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Learning from collaboration: Knowledge and networks in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries [J]. |
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The emergence of corporate alliance networks: Convertion to self-organization [J]. |
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Increasing returns and long-run growth [J].https://doi.org/10.1086/261420 URL [本文引用: 1] |
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Successful Industrial Innovation: Critical factors for the 1990s [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9310.1992.tb00812.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
ABSTRACT Not only is technology changing rapidly, but the process of the commercialisation of technological change—the industrial innovation process—is changing also. The paper traces developments in the dominant perceived model of industrial innovation from the simple linear ‘technology push’ and ‘need pull’ models of the 1960s and early 1970s, through the ‘coupling model’ of the late 1970s to early 1980s, to the ‘integrated’ model of today. The latter (the 4th Generation innovation process) marked a shift from perceptions of innovation as a strictly sequential process to innovation perceived as a largely parallel process. This shift owed much to observations of innovation processes in leading Japanese corporations. Recent developments indicate the possibilities attainable in the proposed ‘strategic integration and networking’ model, elements of which are already in place. According to this 5th generation model, innovation is becoming faster; it increasingly involves inter-company networking; and it employs a new electronic toolkit (expert systems and simulation modelling).
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Topologies of innovation networks in knowledge-intensive sectors: Sectoral differences in the access to knowledge and complementary assets through formal and informal ties [J]. |
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New industrial spaces: Flexible production, organisation and regional development in North America and Western Europe [M]. |
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On the emergence of social conventions: Modeling, analysis, and simulations [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0004-3702(97)00028-3 URL 摘要
We define the notion of social conventions in a standard game-theoretic framework, and identify various criteria of consistency of such conventions with the principle of individual rationality. We then investigate the emergence of such conventions in a stochastic setting; we do so within a stylized framework currently popular in economic circles, namely that of stochastic games. This framework comes in several forms; in our setting agents interact with each other through a random process, and accumulate information about the system. As they do so, they continually reevaluate their current choice of strategy in light of the accumulated information. We introduce a simple and natural strategy-selection rule, called highest cumulative reward (HCR). We show a class of games in which HCR guarantees eventual convergence to a rationally acceptable social convention. Most importantly, we investigate the efficiency with which such social conventions are achieved. We give an analytic lower bound on this rate, and then present results about how HCR works out in practice. Specifically, we pick one of the most basic games, namely a basic coordination game (as defined by Lewis), and through extensive computer simulations determine not only the effect of applying HCR, but also the subtle effects of various system parameters, such as the amount of memory and the frequency of update performed by all agents.
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Buzz: Face-to-face contact and the urban economy [J]. |
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Globalisation or ‘glocalisation’? Networks, territories and rescaling [J]. |
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Applying social network analysis in economic geography: Framing some key analytic issues [J].https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-008-0258-3 URL 摘要
Social network analysis attracts increasing attention in economic geography. We claim social network analysis is a promising tool for empirically investigating the structure and evolution of inter-organizational interaction and knowledge flows within and across regions. However, the potential of the application of network methodology to regional issues is far from exhausted. The aim of our paper is twofold. The first objective is to shed light on the untapped potential of social network analysis techniques in economic geography: we set out some theoretical challenges concerning the static and dynamic analysis of networks in geography. Basically, we claim that network analysis has a huge potential to enrich the literature on clusters, regional innovation systems and knowledge spillovers. The second objective is to describe how these challenges can be met through the application of network analysis techniques, using primary (survey) and secondary (patent) data. We argue that the choice between these two types of data has strong implications for the type of research questions that can be dealt with in economic geography, such as the feasibility of dynamic network analysis.
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Who co-operates for innovation, and why: An empirical analysis [J]. |
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Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: The paradox of embeddedness [J].
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Measuring and assessing organizations [M].
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Functions of industrial supplier relationships and their impact on relationship quality [J].https://doi.org/10.1016/S0019-8501(02)00230-4 Magsci 摘要
<h2 class="secHeading" id="section_abstract">Abstract</h2><p id="">Although recent scholarly work on business relationships often discusses relationship quality as a major issue, especially with regard to the phenomenon of vendor stratification, there is still little empirical research on this important construct. In this paper, the authors provide a thorough conceptualization of relationship quality and its possible antecedents, i.e., the direct and indirect functions of the relationship for the customer. Drawing on an empirical base of 230 buyer questionnaires, the authors show that the extent to which a supplier fulfills direct and indirect functions in a relationship has a direct positive impact on the relationship quality perceived by the customer. This impact is especially strong when the customer can easily replace the supplier or, in other words, when the supplier faces competition. The findings are discussed and the authors provide managerial implications for decision-makers from both buyer and supplier organizations.</p>
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Critical reviews of geographical perspectives on business organizations and the organization of production: Towards a network approach [J].https://doi.org/10.1177/030913259401800403 URL 摘要
No abstract available.
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Rethinking relational economic geography [J].https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2005.00150.x URL [本文引用: 1] 摘要
Recent theoretical and empirical work in economic geography has experienced what might be termed a ‘relational turn’ that focuses primarily on the ways in which socio-spatial relations of economic actors are intertwined with processes of economic change at various geographical scales. This phenomenon begs the questions of whether the ‘relational turn’ is simply an explicit reworking of what might be an undercurrent in economic geography during the late 1970s and the 1980s, and whether this ‘turn’ offers substantial advancement in our theory and practice. In this paper, I aim to evaluate critically the nature and emergence of this relational economic geography by revisiting its antecedents and conceptual frameworks. This evaluation opens up some significant conceptual issues that are further reworked in this paper. In particular, I argue that much of the work in this ‘relational turn’ is relational only in a thematic sense, focusing on various themes of socio-spatial relations without theorizing sufficiently the nature of relationality and its manifestation through power relations and actor-specific practice. This paper thus illuminates the nature of relationality and the multiple ways through which power works itself out in ‘relational geometries’, defined as the spatial configurations of heterogeneous power relations. As a preliminary attempt, I first conceptualize different forms of power in such relational geometries and their causal effects in producing concrete/spatial outcomes. I then show how this relational view can offer an alternative understanding of a major research concern in contemporary economic geography – regional development.
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Networking and growth of young technology-intensive ventures in China [J]. |
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