面向灾害风险评估的台风风场模型研究综述

doi:10.11820/dlkxjz.2013.06.002

摘要/Abstract

摘要： 台风历史观测风速等数据时空分布不均, 观测年份有限, 在进行定量概率风险评估时, 经常面临样本不足的限制。与数值风场不同, 参数化台风风场模型因计算时间短, 结合路径及强度的随机事件模拟, 在台风风险评估中发挥着不可替代的作用。本文按照台风风速模拟的基本流程, 首先, 总结了参数风场模型中最大风速、最大风速半径、Holland B系数等关键参数的确定方法, 分析了国内外梯度风场模拟、边界层风速垂直折减计算的研究进展;其次, 重点讨论了国内外关于地表粗糙度、地形、阵风因子以及海陆转换因素对于风速修正的理论及应用情况;再次, 对于风场模型在台风风险模型软件、台风次生风暴潮及海浪灾害的应用进行了概述;最后, 针对中国台风风场模拟研究的不足, 对加强多学科联合、数据观测、地表粗糙度变化及分布研究、地形影响修正研究以及重建历史风场等未来改进方向进行了展望。

关键词: 风场模型, 风速修正, 风险评估, 台风, 灾害

Abstract: Quantitative probabilistic typhoon risk model needs a large number of wind samples as input. However, in many areas, historical observation data is inadequate in both spatial and temporal dimensions, which may introduce great bias into risk assessment results. Combined with stochastic track model, parametric wind field model can provide a large number of wind speed samples to quantify wind risk, thanks to its simplicity in computation and solid scientific foundation. According to the general process of typhoon wind modeling, in this paper, firstly the estimation methods of maximum wind speed, radius of maximum wind speed and Holland B parameter for wind field model are reviewed, and the progress in gradient wind field model and boundary layer model is illustrated. Secondly, the theories and applications of wind speed adjustment for surface roughness, terrain, gusts and sea-land transition are analyzed. Thirdly, major software systems with wind field components are also summarized. Finally, it is suggested that the integration of meteorology, wind engineering, oceanic and disaster risk sciences be enhanced. Surface roughness estimation by remote sensing, and terrain adjustment are proposed as priority research areas for China in the future.

Key words: disaster, risk assessment, typhoon, wind field model, wind speed adjustment

方伟华, 林伟. 面向灾害风险评估的台风风场模型研究综述[J]. 地理科学进展, 2013, 32(6): 852-867.

FANG Weihua, LIN Wei. A review on typhoon wind field modeling for disaster risk assessment[J]. PROGRESS IN GEOGRAPHY, 2013, 32(6): 852-867.

参考文献

[1] AIR. 2008. The AIR hurricane model. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Commission on Hurricane Loss Projection Methodology.
[2] Alexander D. 2000. Confronting catastrophe: New perspectives on natural disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[3] ARA. 2008. ARA Hurloss hurricane wind model. Albuquerque, NM: Applied Research Associates.
[4] Arthur C, Schofield A, Cechet B, et al. 2008. Return period cyclonic wind hazard in the Australian region. 28th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology. Orlando, FL: 28 April-2 May.
[5] ASCE. 2005. Minimum design loads for buildings and other structures. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.
[6] Association committee on the national building code. 1990. National building code of Canada. Ottawa, Canada: National Research Council Canada.
[7] Atkinson G D, Holliday C R. 1977. Tropical cyclone minimum sea level pressure maximum sustained wind relationship for the Western North Pacific. Monthly Weather Review, 105(4): 421-427.
[8] Ayotte K W, Davy R J, Coppin P A. 2001. A simple temporal and spatial analysis of flow in complex terrain in the context of wind energy modelling. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 98 (2): 275-295.
[9] Baskaran A, Stathopoulos T. 1989. Computational evaluation of windeffects on buildings. Building and Environment, 24(4): 325-333.
[10] Batts M E, Simiu E, Russell L R. 1980. Hurricane wind speeds in the United States. Journal of the Structural Division, 106(10), 2001-2016.
[11] Baum R L, Coe J A, Godt J W, et al. 2005. Regional landslide- hazard assessment for Seattle, Washington, USA. Earth and Environmental Science, 2(4): 266-279.
[12] Beljaars A C M, Walmsley J L, Taylor P A. 1987. A mixed spectral finite-difference model for neutrally stratified boundary-layer flow over roughness changes and topography. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 38(3): 273-303.
[13] Bode L, Hardy T A. 1997. Progress and recent developments in storm surge modeling. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 123(4): 315-331.
[14] Booij N, Ris R, Holthuijsen L H. 1999. A third-generation wave model for coastal regions: 1. Model description and validation. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104(C4): 7649-7666.
[15] Cao S, Tamura T. 2006. Experimental study on roughness effects on turbulent boundary layer flow over a two-dimensional steep hill. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 94(1): 1-19.
[16] Cao W J. 1991. Review on roughness length. Meteorological Monthly, 17(4): 45-47. [曹文俊. 1991. 粗糙度长度综述. 气象, 17(4): 45-47.]
[17] Chen D W. 2006. Analysis and modeling study of typhoon sea surface wind field in the vicinity of Taiwan[D]. Xiamen, China: Xiamen University. [陈德文. 2006. 台湾岛周边海域台风海面风场及其模型化研究[D]. 厦门: 厦门大学.]
[18] Chen K M. 1981. The typhoon pressure field and wind field models. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 3(1): 44-56. [陈孔沫. 1981. 台风气压场和风场模式. 海洋学报, 3(1): 44-56.]
[19] Chen K M. 1982. Wind field model over the ocean. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 4(6): 771-777. [陈孔沫. 1982. 海上台风风场模式. 海洋学报, 4(6): 771-777.]
[20] Chen K M. 1988. Calculation of maximum wind speed of typhoon. Marine Sciences, (5): 1-4. [陈孔沫. 1988. 移行台风最大风速的计算. 海洋科学, (5): 1-4.]
[21] Chen K M. 1992. A new method calculating typhoon wind field. Marine Forecasts, 9(3): 60-65. [陈孔沫. 1992. 新的台风风场计算方法. 海洋预报, 9(3): 60-65.]
[22] Chen K M. 1994. A computation method for typhoon wind field. Tropic Oceanology, 13(2): 41-48. [陈孔沫. 1994. 一种计算台风风场的方法. 热带海洋, 13(2): 41-48.]
[23] Chen W, Song L, Zhi S, et al. 2011. Analysis on gust factor of tropical cyclone strong wind over different underlying surfaces. Science China Technological Sciences, 54(10): 2576-2586.
[24] Chen X L, Wu C S, He X J, et al. 2005. A numerical study of the landfall of Typhoon Utor. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Sunyatseni, 44(2): 102-106. [陈训来, 吴池胜, 何夏江, 等. 2005. 台风Utor 登陆广东过程的数值研究. 中山大学学报: 自然科学版, 44(2): 102-106.]
[25] Cheng H. 2009. Reconstruction of typhoon hazard over China with Monte Carlo simulation based on historical observation data[D]. Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. [程鸿. 2009. 基于历史观测数据的中国台风致灾因子过程重建与蒙特拉洛模拟[D]. 北京: 北京师范大学.]
[26] Chock G Y K, Cochran L. 2005. Modeling of topographic wind speed effects in Hawaii. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93(8): 623-638.
[27] Deroin J P, Simonin A. 1997. An empirical model for interpreting the relationship between backscattering and arid land surface roughness as seen with the SAR. Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 3(1): 86-92.
[28] Duan Z D, Peng X. 2005. Analysis and determination of Holland pressure parameter of typhoon model. The 12th National Conference on Structural Wind Engineering. Xi'an, China: 19-22 October. [段忠东, 彭翔. 2005. 台风模型中的Holland 气压场参数分析与标定. 第十二届全国结构风工程学术会议. 西安: 10月19-22 日.]
[29] Durst C S. 1960. Wind speeds over short periods of time. Meteorological Magzine, 89: 181-186.
[30] Dvorak V F. 1975. Tropical cyclone intensity analysis and forecasting from satellite imagery. Monthly Weather Review, 19(4): 199-206.
[31] Emanuel K, Ravela S, Vivant E, et al. 2005. A combined statistical- deterministic approach to hurricane risk assessment. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[32] EQECAT. 2008. Florida Commission on Hurricane Loss Projection Methodology.
[33] ESDU. 1983. Strong winds in the atmospheric boundary layer, Part 2: Discrete gust speeds. London: Engineering Sciences Data Unit.
[34] Fang W H, Shi X W. 2012. A review of stochastic modeling of tropical cyclone track and intensity for disaster risk assessment. Advances in Earth Science, 27(8): 866-875. [方伟华, 石先武. 2012. 面向灾害风险评估的热带气旋路径及强度随机模拟综述. 地球科学进展, 27(8): 866-875.]
[35] FEMA. 2007. Multi-hazard loss estimation methodology hurricane model technical manual: HAZUS?MH MR4 technical manual. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency.
[36] FIU. 2010. Florida Public Hurricane Loss Model. Florida Commission on Hurricane Loss Projection Methodology. University Park, FL: Florida International University
[37] Fujii T. 1998. Statistical analysis of the characteristics of severe typhoons hitting the Japanese main islands. Monthly Weather Review, 126(4): 1091-1097.
[38] Fujii T, Maeda J, Ishida N, et al. 2002. An analysis of a pressure pattern in severe Typhoon Bart hitting the Japanese islands in 1999 and a comparison of the gradient wind with the observed surface wind. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 90(12): 1555-1568.
[39] Georgiou P N. 1985. Design wind speeds in tropical cyclone- prone regions[D]. London: University of Western Ontario.
[40] Georgiou P N, Davenport A G, Vickery B J. 1983. Design wind speeds in regions dominated by tropical cyclones. Jounal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 13(1): 139-152.
[41] Greeley R, Blumberg D G, McHone J F, et al. 1997. Applications of spaceborne radar laboratory data to the study of aeolian processes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102 (5): 10971-10983.
[42] Hansen M C, Reed B A. 2000. A comparison of the IGBP DISCover and University of Maryland 1 km global land cover products. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21 (6-7): 1365-1373.
[43] Harper B A. 2002. Tropical cyclone parameter estimation in the Australian region: Wind-pressure relationships and related issues for engineering planning and design: A discussion paper. Queensland, Australia: Systems Engineering Australia Pty Ltd.
[44] Holland G J. 1980. An analytic model of the wind and pressure profiles in hurricanes. Monthly Weather Review, 108 (8): 1212-1218.
[45] Holland G J. 2008. A revised hurricane pressure-wind model. MonthlyWeather Review, 136(9): 3432-3445.
[46] Holmes J D, Baker C J, English E C, et al. 2005. Wind structure and codification.Wind Structure, 8(4): 235-250.
[47] Hu B H, Tan Y K, Wang J. 2004. Calculation of maximum wind velocity radius of tropical cyclone on sea surface. Journal of Applied Meteorological Science, 15(4): 427-435. [胡邦辉, 谭言科, 王举. 2004. 热带气旋海面最大风速半径的计算. 应用气象学报, 15(4): 427-435.]
[48] Huang Z, Rosowsky D V, Sparks P R. 2001. Lond-term hurricane risk assessment and expected damage to residential structures. Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 74 (3): 239-249.
[49] Ishihara T, Yamaguchi A, Fujino Y. 2002. A nonlinear model MASCOT: Development and application. Wind Energy, 26(4): 2-6.
[50] Iverson R M. 2000. Landslide triggering by rain infiltration. Water Resources Research, 36(7): 1897-1910.
[51] Jackson P S, Hunt J C R. 1975. Turbulent windflow over a low hill. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 101: 929-955.
[52] Jakobsen F, Madsen H. 2004. Comparison and further development of parametric tropical cyclone models for storm surge modelling. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 92(5): 375-391.
[53] Jelesnianski C P. 1965. Numerical computation of storm surge induced by a tropical storm impinging on a continental shelf. Monthly Weather Review, 93(16): 343-358.
[54] Jelesnianski C P. 1972. SPLASH(Special Program to List Amplitudes of Surges from Hurricanes) I. Landfall storms. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Weather Service.
[55] Jelesnianski C P, Chen J, Shaffer W A. 1992. SLOSH: Sea, lake, and overland surges from hurricanes. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/NationalWeather Service.
[56] Jiang Z H. 2007. Improvement to wind model of tropical cyclone and its application in LAGFD-WAM[D]. Qingdao, China: The First Institute of Oceanography, SOA. [江志辉. 2007. 热带气旋模型风场改进及其在LAGFD-WAM 中的应用[D]. 青岛: 国家海洋局第一海洋研究所.]
[57] Joint Technical Committee. 2002. Australian/New Zealand Standard, Structural design actions, Part 2: wind actions, AS/NZS 1170.2:2002. Sydney: Standards Australia International Ltd andWellington: Standards New Zealand.
[58] JTWC. 2012. JTWC tropical cyclone best track data( 2001-2011) [DB/OL]. [2012-08-20]. http://www.usno. navy.mil/NOOC/nmfc-ph/RSS/jtwc/best_tracks/wpindex. html.
[59] Kepert J. 2001. The dynamics of boundary layer jets within the tropical cyclone core. Part I: Linear theory. Jounal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 58(17): 2469-2484.
[60] Kikuchi Y, Ishihara T. 2012. A study of topographic multiplier considering the effect of complex terrains and tropical cyclones. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 104-106: 558-564.
[61] Knaff J A, Zehr R M. 2007. Reexamination of tropical cyclone wind-pressure relationships. Weather and Forecasting, 22(1): 71-88.
[62] Krayer W R, Marshall R D. 1992. Gust factors applied to hurricane winds. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 73(5): 270-280.
[63] Lee Y K, Lee S, Kim H S. 2009. Evaluation of wind hazard over Jeju Island. The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering. Taipei: 8-12 November.
[64] Lei X T, Chen L S. 2005. A method to construct tropical cyclone wind distribution models and estimate its characteristic parameters. Chinese Journal of Geophysics, 48(1): 25-31. [雷小途, 陈联寿. 2005. 热带气旋风场模型构造及特征参数估算. 地球物理学报, 48(1): 25-31].
[65] Li Q. 2003. Statistic of typhoon key parameters and Shapiro wind field modeling for typhoon prone cities of China [D]. Harbin, China: Harbin Institute of Technology. [ 李茜. 2003. 我国台风区城市的台风关键参数统计分析与 Shapiro风场模拟[D]. 哈尔滨: 哈尔滨工业大学.]
[66] Li R L. 2007. Prediction of typhoon extreme wind speeds based on improved typhoon key parameters[D]. Harbin, China: Harbin Institute of Technology. [李瑞龙. 2007. 基于改进的台风关键参数的台风极值风速预测[D]. 哈尔滨工业大学.]
[67] Li X L, Pan Z D. 1995. A method for adjustment of typhoon parameters. Journal of Oceanography of Huanghai & Bohai Seas, 13(2): 11-15. [李小莉, 潘增弟. 1995. 一种调整台风参数的方法. 黄渤海海洋, 13(2): 11-15.]
[68] Li Y Y, Wang D H, Wang B. 2009. Study on dynamic problems of airflow over mountain in small and medium scale. Progress in Natural Science, 19(3): 310-324. [李艺苑, 王东海, 王斌. 2009. 中小尺度过山气流的动力问题研究. 自然科学进展, 19(3): 310-324.]
[69] Li Y, Xia J, Liu Z J, et al. 2005. Comparison on topographical speed-up effects on wind flow provided by main load codes/specifications for design of building structures. The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering. Seoul, Korea: 12-14 September.
[70] Liang B Q, Liang J P, Wen Z P. 1995. Study of typhoon disasters and its affects in China. Journal of Natural Disasters, 4(1): 84-91. [梁必骐, 梁经萍, 温之平. 1995. 中国台风灾害及其影响的研究. 自然灾害学报, 4(1): 84-91.]
[71] Lin N, Chavas D. 2012. On hurricane parametric wind and applications in storm surge modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres(1984-2012), 117: D09120.
[72] Lin W, Fang W H. 2013. Study on regional characteristics of Holland B parameter in typhoon wind field model for Northwest Pacific. Tropical Geography, 33(2): 124-132. [林伟, 方伟华. 2013. 西北太平洋台风风场模型中Holland B系数的区域特征研究. 热带地理, 33(2): 124-132.]
[73] Liu J Y, Zhuang D F, Zhang Z X, et al. 2002. The Establishment of land-use spatial-temporal database and its relative studies in China. Geoinformation Science, 4(3): 3-7. [刘纪远, 庄大方, 张增祥, 等. 2002. 中国土地利用时空数据平台建设及其支持下的相关研究. 地球信息科学, 4(3): 3-7.]
[74] Loveland T, Reed B, Brown J, et al. 2000. Development of a global land cover characteristics database and IGBP DISCover from 1 km AVHRR data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(6-7): 1303-1330.
[75] Luettich Jr. R A, Westerink J J, Scheffner N W. 1992. ADCIRC: An advanced three-dimensional circulation model for shelves, coasts, and estuaries. Report 1: Theory and methodology of ADCIRC-2DDI and ADCIRC-3DL. Washington, DC: US Army Corps of Engineers.
[76] Maharani Y N, Lee S, Lee Y K. 2009. Topographic effects on wind speed over various terrains: A case study for Korean Peninsula. The Seventh Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering. Taipei: 8-12 November.
[77] Mason P J, Sykes R I. 1979. Flow over an isolated hill of moderate slope. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 105: 383-395.
[78] Masters F J. 2004. Measurement, modelling and simulation of ground-level tropical cyclone wind[D]. Gainesville FL: University of Florida.
[79] Matsui M, Takeshi I, Kazuki H. 2002. Directional characteristics of probability distribution of extreme wind speeds by typhoon simulation. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 90(12): 1541-1553.
[80] Meng Y, Matsui M, Hibi K. 1995. An analytical model for simulation of the wind field in a typhoon boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 56(2-3): 291-310.
[81] Meng Y, Matsui M, Hibi K, et al. 1997. A numerical study of the wind field in a typhoon boundary layer. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 67-68: 437-448.
[82] Miller B I. 1967. Characteristics of hurricanes analyses and calculations made from measurements by aircraft result in a fairly complete description. Science, 157: 1389-1399.
[83] Miyazaki M, Ueno T, Unoki S. 1961. Theoretical investigations of typhoon surges along the Japanese coast. Oceanography Magazine, 13(2): 103-117.
[84] Mondiale O M. 2008. Guide to meteorological instruments and methods of observation. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.
[85] Mortensen N G. 1993. Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program (WASP): Getting started. Denmark, Riso National Laboratory.
[86] National Nuclear Safety Administration. 1998. Compilation guidelines for nuclear plant safety. Beijing, China: China Legal Publishing House. [国家核安全局. 1998. 核安全导则汇编. 北京: 中国法制出版社.]
[87] Ngo T T, Letchford C W. 2009. Experimental study of topographic effects on gust wind speed. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 97(9-10): 426-438.
[88] Okazaki T, Watabe H, Ishihara T. 2005. Development of Typhoon Simulation Model for Insurance Risk Estimation. The Sixth Asia-Pacific Conference on Wind Engineering. Seoul, Korea: 12-14 September.
[89] Ou J P, Duan Z D, Chang L. 2002. Typhoon risk analysis for key coastal cities in southeast China. Journal of Natural Disasters, 11(4): 9-17. [欧进萍, 段忠东, 常亮. 2002. 中国东南沿海重点城市台风危险性分析. 自然灾害学报, 11(4): 9-17.]
[90] Pochard P, Vickery B, Berin M C, et al. 2010. Targeting Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells modifies the T(H)2 response to peanut allergens in vitro. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 126(1): 92-97.
[91] Powell M D, HoustonI S H, Amat L R, et al. 1998. The HRD real-time hurricane wind analysis system. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 77-78 (1): 53-64.
[92] Powell M D, Uhlhorn E W, Kepert J D. 2009. Estimating maximum surface winds from hurricane reconnaissance measurements. Weather and Forecasting, 24(3): 868-883.
[93] Powell M D, Vickery P, Reinhold T A. 2003. Reduced drag coefficient for high wind speeds in tropical cyclones. Nature, 422: 279-283.
[94] Powell M, Soukup G, Cocke S, et al. 2005. State of florida hurricane loss projection model: Atmospheric science component. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93(8): 651-674.
[95] Prigent C, Ina T, Filipe A, et al. 2005. Estimation of the aerodynamic roughness length in arid and semi-arid regions over the globe with the ERS scatterometer. Journal of geophysical research, 110(9): 1-12.
[96] Raithby G D, Stubley G D, Taylor P A. 1987. The Askervein Hill Project: A finite control volume prediction of three-dimensional flows over the hill. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 39(3): 247-267.
[97] Risk Management Solutions(RMS). 2008. RMSTM US Hurricane Model. Newark, CA: Risk Management Solutions, Inc.
[98] Rogers W E, Hwang P A, Wang D W. 2003. Investigation of wave growth and decay in the SWAN model: Three regional- scale applications. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 33(2): 366-389.
[99] Russell L R. 1968. Probability distribution for Texas Gulf coast hurricane effects of engineering Interest[D]. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.
[100] Schwerdt RW, Ho F P,Watkins R R. 1979. Meteorological criteria for standard project hurricane and probable maximum hurricane windfields, Gulf and east coasts of the United States. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/ NationalWeather Service.
[101] Shapiro L. 1983. The asymmetric boundary layer flow under a translating hurricane. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 40(8): 1984-1998.
[102] Shi X W. 2012. Spatiotemporal characteristics and stochastic modeling of tropical cyclone track and intensity in NWP basin[D]. Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. [石先武. 2012. 西北太平洋热带气旋时空特征分析及随机模拟[D]. 北京: 北京师范大学.]
[103] Simiu E, Scanlan R H. 1996. Wind effects on structures: Fundamental and applications to design. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
[104] Sparks P R, Huang Z. 2001. Gust factors and surface-to-gradient wind speed ratios in tropical cyclones. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 89 (11-12): 1047-1058.
[105] Sparks P R. 2003. Wind speeds in tropical cyclones and associated insurance losses. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 91(12): 1731-1751.
[106] Sverdrup F M, Yates M R, Vickery L E, et al. 2010. Protein geranylgeranylation controls collagenase expression in osteoarthritic cartilage. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 18(7): 948-955.
[107] Tang H T. 2008. Study on typhoon wind field model in Xiamen area[D]. Chongqing, China: Chongqing University. [汤海涛. 2008. 厦门地区台风风场模型初步研究[D]. 重庆: 重庆大学.]
[108] Tolman H L. 2002. User manual and system documentation of WAVEWATCH-III version 2.22. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/NationalWeather Service.
[109] Tompson E F, Cardone V J. 1996. Practical modeling of hurricane surface wind fields. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, 122(4): 195-205.
[110] Vickery P J, Skerlj P F, Steckley A C, et al. 2000a. Hurricane wind field model for use in hurricane simulations. Journal of Structural Engineering, 126(10): 1203-1221.
[111] Vickery P J, Skerlj P F, Twisdale L A. 2000b. Simulation of hurricane risk in the U.S. using empirical track model. Journal of Structure Engineering, 26(10): 1222-1237.
[112] Vickery P J, Skerlj P F. 2005. Hurricane gust factors revisited. Journal of Structural Engineering, 131(5): 825-832.
[113] Vickery P J, Dhiraj W. 2008. Statistical models of Holland pressure profile parameter and radius to maximum winds of hurricanes from flight-level pressure and H*Wind data. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 47 (10): 2497-2517.
[114] Vickery P J, Wadhera D, Powell M D, et al. 2009a. A hurricane boundary layer and wind field model for use in engineering applications. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 48(2): 381-405.
[115] Vickery P J, Masters F J, Powell M D, et al. 2009b. Hurricane hazard modeling: The past, present, and future. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 97 (7-8): 392-405.
[116] Walmsley J L, Salmon J R, Taylor P A. 1982. On the application of a model of boundary-layer flow over low hills to real terrain. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 23(1): 17-46.
[117] Walmsley J L, Troen I, Lalas D P, et al. 1990. Surface-layer flow in complex terrain: Comparison of models and full-scale observations. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 52 (3): 259-281.
[118] Wang X Y, Fan X T, Liu H, et al. 2001. Analysis of radar wave back scatter coefficient for fractal feature of roughness surface of Gobi in Northeastern Ejina Qi, Inner Mongolia. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 15(3): 116-119. [王心源, 范湘涛, 刘浩, 等. 2001. 额济纳旗东北区戈壁面粗糙度分形特征与雷达遥感实证分析. 水土保持学报, 15(3): 116-119.]
[119] Wang Y, Rosowsky D V. 2012. Joint distribution model for prediction of hurricane wind speed and size. Structural Safety, 35: 40-51.
[120] Wieringa J, Davenport A G, Grimmond C S B, et al. 2001. New revision of Davenport roughness classification. 3rd European & African Conference on Wind Engineering. Eindhoven, Netherlands: 2-6 July.
[121] Willoughby H, Rahn M. 2004. Parametric representation of the primary hurricane vortex. Part I: Observations and evaluation of the Holland(1980) model. Monthly Weather Review, 132(12): 3033-3048.
[122] Willoughby H, Darling R, Rahn M. 2006. Parametric representation of the primary hurricane vortex. Part II: A new family of sectionally continuous profiles. Monthly Weather Review, 134(4): 1102-1120.
[123] Wu R S. 1999. Principle of modern weather science. Beijing, China: Higher Education Press. [伍荣生. 1999. 现代天气学原理. 北京: 高等教育出版社.]
[124] Xiao Y F. 2009. Study on impact of Holland B parameter on the numerical modelling of CE typhoon wind field. The 14th National Conference on Structural Wind Engineering. Beijing, China: 27-30 August. [肖玉凤. 2009. Holland 参数B对CE风场数值模拟结果的影响研究. 第十四届全国结构风工程学术会议. 北京: 8月27-30 日.]
[125] Xiao Y F. 2011. Typhoon wind hazard analysis based on numerical simulation and fragility of light-gauge steel structure in southeast China coastal regions[D]. Harbin, China: Harbin Institute of Technology. [肖玉凤. 2011. 基于数值模拟的东南沿海台风危险性分析及轻钢结构风灾易损性研究[D]. 哈尔滨: 哈尔滨工业大学.]
[126] Xiao Y F, Duan Z D, Xiao Y Q, et al. 2011. Typhoon wind hazard analysis for southeast China coastal regions. Structural Safety, 33(4): 286-295.
[127] Xu D, Taylor P A. 1992. A non-linear extension of the mixed spectral finite difference model for neutrally stratified turbulent flow over topography. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 59(1-2): 177-186.
[128] Xu J J, Yang T H. 1988. A model for a typhoon wind field and its computation application. Tropic Oceanology, 7(1): 1-9. [徐家隽, 杨天鸿. 1988. 一个台风范围的风场模式及其应用计算. 热带海洋, 7(1): 1-9.]
[129] Xu T, Lei X T, Yu H. 2012. WMO Typhoon Landfall Forecast Demonstration Project(WMO-TLFDP): Concept and progress. Tropical Cyclone Research and Review, 1(1): 89-96.
[130] Xu W T, Wu B F, Yan C Z, et al. 2005. China land cover 2000 using SPOT VGT S10 data. Journal of Remote Sensing, 9 (2): 204-215.
[131] Yan B Y. 1984. A gradient wind model of typhoon. Marine Forecast Service, 1(2): 12-17. [阎秉耀. 1984. 台风梯度风场模式. 海洋预报服务, 1(2): 12-17.]
[132] Yu W, Benoit R, Girard C, et al. 2006. Wind Energy Simulation Toolkit(WEST): A wind mapping system for use by wind energy industry.Wind Engineering, 30(1): 15-33.
[133] Zhang J L, Sui S F. 1989. CHGS method for numerical forecasting of typhoon waves: Ⅱ. Computations of frictional correction coefficient and inner deflection angle of wind direction for the gradient wind in the wind field of typhoon. Tropic Oceanology, 8(1): 58-66. [ 章家琳, 隋世峰. 1989. 台风波浪数值预报的CHGS法: Ⅱ. 台风风场中梯度风摩擦修正系数和风向内偏角的计算. 热带海洋, 8(1): 58-66.]
[134] Zhao L, Ge Y J, Xiang H F. 2005. Application of typhoon stochastic simulation and its extreme value wind prediction. Journal of Tongji University: Natural Science, 33(7): 885-889. [赵林, 葛耀君, 项海帆. 2005. 台风随机模拟与极值风速预测应用. 同济大学学报: 自然科学版, 33(7): 885-889.]
[135] Zhao Y, Duan Z D. Tamura Y, et al. 2010. Comparative study on the gust load factor in the load codes and standards of five countries. Journal of Harbin Engineering University, 31(11): 1465-1472. [赵杨, 段忠东, Tamura Y, 等. 2010. 多国荷载规范中阵风荷载因子的比较研究. 哈尔滨工程大学学报, 31(11): 1465-1472.]
[136] Zhu C Y, Zhang R H, Wang J F, et al. 2004. Quantitative inversion of two-dimensional distribution of the surface aerodynamic roughness using SAR image and TM thermal infrared image. Science in China: Ser. D, 34(4): 385-393.[朱彩英, 张仁华, 王劲峰, 等. 2004. 运用SAR 图像和 TM热红外图像定量反演地表空气动力学粗糙度的二维分布. 中国科学: D辑, 34(4): 385-393.]
[138] Zou Y, Zhao P. 2009. Comparison of tropical cyclone datasets and a data-correction scheme for data from TC yearly book. Journal of Tropical Meteorology, 25(3): 295-299. [邹燕, 赵平. 2009. 几种台风资料的对比及台风年鉴数据的订正. 热带气象学报, 25(3): 295-299.]