地理科学进展  2019 , 38 (1): 101-110 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.01.009

研究综述

演化经济地理学视角下旅游目的地研究述评及启示

赵政原1, 刘志高23*

1. 东南大学人文学院,南京 211189
2. 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,北京 100101
3. 中国科学院大学资源与环境学院,北京 100049

Review of tourist destination research in the perspective of evolutionary economic geography

ZHAO Zhengyuan1, LIU Zhigao23*

1. School of Humanities, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
2. Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
3. School of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

通讯作者:  *通信作者简介:刘志高(1974— ),男,湖北江陵人,博士,副研究员,研究方向为演化经济地理学。E-mail: liuzhigao@igsnrr.ac.cn

收稿日期: 2018-05-9

修回日期:  2018-12-5

网络出版日期:  2019-01-28

版权声明:  2019 地理科学进展 《地理科学进展》杂志 版权所有

基金资助:  国家自然科学基金项目(41471113,41530751)江苏省社会科学基金项目(17GLC004)中央高校基本业务费基础扶持资助项目(3213007207)中国科学院A类战略性先导科技专项“地球大数据科学工程”项目(XDA19040403)

作者简介:

第一作者简介:赵政原(1987— ),男,江苏南京人,博士,讲师,研究方向为经济地理、文化产业地理、旅游地理。E-mail: greatzzy@163.com

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摘要

由于旅游目的地系统的多元和综合属性,其研究内容往往呈现跨学科的属性,涵盖地理学、经济学、管理学、社会学等多个领域。20世纪90年代以来,以进化论和复杂系统论为理论基础,强调历史过程和空间异质性的演化经济地理学,因其超越原有的单线逻辑的叙事而受到旅游研究者的关注。作为旅游目的地研究的新范式和新理论,演化经济地理学被应用于旅游目的地的演化路径和演化动力机制,并为其提供了“结构—过程”分析视角。而另一方面,中国旅游目的地的发展及演变,和西方发达国家的经验有着较大区别,只有在充分立足于中国旅游目的地的实际状况和基本国情的基础上,才能够更好地构建“中国特色”的旅游目的地理论体系,探索更为多元化的旅游研究方法。加强与政治经济学和制度经济学研究的结合能够为中国的旅游实践提供较为宏观尺度的政策分析视角,进而有助于旅游公共服务体系的转型升级;加强中微观层面的多尺度耦合机制和多元主体行为研究,将有助于探索不同利益相关者参与下中国旅游目的地的可持续发展路径。

关键词: 旅游目的地 ; 演化经济地理学 ; 路径依赖 ; 复杂系统

Abstract

Because of the diversity and complexity of tourist destination, its research is often cross-disciplinary, covering geography, economics, management, sociology, and so on. Tourism area life cycle, tourism industry cluster, and tourist destination management and governance have been concerned by economic geographers. Evolutionary economic geography (EEG) stresses historical processes and spatial heterogeneity and relies on three main conceptual foundations: path dependence, complexity theory, and generalized Darwinism. In recent years, tourism scholars have found EEG a useful paradigm with studies focusing on tourism area development, tourist destination management or governance, local tourism industry, and tourism stakeholders in creating new paths. These studies have shown the usefulness of a path dependence (and path creation), complexity theory, and generalized Darwinism approach in tourism research. Furthermore, several studies offer comprehensive overviews relating EEG to both cultural political economy and behavioral research approaches in tourism studies that include structural and process perspectives. China's tourist destination development and change are different from those of the West. With its socialist market economy model, public ownership co-exists with the private sector. The Chinese government still engages in the macro-management of the national economy, operating and controlling strategic industries and regulating certain prices. It also applies a top-down governance model in tourist destination management. In this article, we discussed the Chinese characteristics in tourist destination system, and suggested two directions in future tourism studies in China: linking the perspective of EEG with political economy and institutional economy can provide macro policy analysis for China's tourism studies, and thus contribute to the transformation and upgrading of tourism public service system; taking the perspective of multi-scale coupling at the meso- and micro-scales and multiple stakeholder analysis can help explore diverse stakeholder participation, and thus contribute to the sustainable development of tourism destination in China. With this background, China provides a fascinating environment to explore diversified tourism research methods; and the fact that tourism is a relatively new development area provides the potential to explore how the bureaucratic mechanisms are responding to the need for policy changes.

Keywords: tourist destination ; evolutionary economic geography ; path dependence ; complexity theory

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赵政原, 刘志高. 演化经济地理学视角下旅游目的地研究述评及启示[J]. 地理科学进展, 2019, 38(1): 101-110 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.01.009

ZHAO Zhengyuan, LIU Zhigao. Review of tourist destination research in the perspective of evolutionary economic geography[J]. Progress in Geography, 2019, 38(1): 101-110 https://doi.org/10.18306/dlkxjz.2019.01.009

随着世界和各国旅游业的发展,作为旅游活动中心的旅游目的地演化和发展成为旅游研究重要议题。由于旅游目的地系统的多元性和综合性,其研究内容往往涵盖旅游学、地理学、经济学、管理学、社会学等多个领域。从地理学的视角来看,旅游目的地往往被视作一个为旅游者所认可的,特定的地理空间区域和经济活动区域(Buhalis,2000)。在此基础上,可以对旅游目的地资源分布、旅游空间结构形成科学的认识,并对其中的旅游活动及现象进行描述和解释,最终有助于形成针对旅游目的地可持续发展的政策与管理体系。其中,旅游目的地的空间演化与生命周期、旅游产业集群与网络、旅游目的地的管理与治理等领域一直受到国内外经济地理学者的广泛关注(Ioannides, 2006)。

旅游目的地作为一种因旅游流的产生、分配、集聚与扩散而形成并发展的复杂、开放的地域综合体,构成了特殊的复合生态系统。但从国内的成果来看,尽管目前旅游目的地研究内容和方法日趋多元,但大多数仍未跳脱出基于力学均衡模型的传统思维,即从需求和供给角度,寻求一种平衡状态下的资源最佳配置方式。这样的研究往往背离了旅游目的地的实际发展状况和游客的多样化需求,以及环境保护和社会文化发展的需要(Brouder, 2014)。

20世纪90年代发展起来的演化经济地理学吸收了演化经济学和经济地理学的成果,以进化论和复杂系统论为理论基础,强调历史过程和空间异质性的重要性。因其和旅游目的地研究的初衷,以及近年来国内外旅游目的地的管理实践不谋而合,从而被逐步运用到旅游目的地研究中。本文将简要回顾西方演化经济地理学的兴起与发展,并从演化路径、演化动力机制以及结构性3个角度重点分析近10年来该范式在旅游目的地研究中的应用。在此基础上,论述演化经济地理范式对中国旅游研究的启示,并提出中国旅游目的地研究的几个具体方向。

1 演化经济地理学的兴起与发展

20世纪80年代以来,国际经济地理学界开始摆脱“计量革命”的影响,从原来单纯的经济要素分析,转变为主张在经济空间分析中高度重视历史、文化、制度和政治等因素,试图实现“经济地理学真实情景化”(Coe et al, 2007),并出现了“文化转向”“制度转向”“关系转向”和“演化转向”(李小建等, 2004)。其中,演化经济地理学以生物进化论和复杂科学为理论基础,主张企业异质性,强调特定时空情景(context-specific)、路径依赖(path dependence)以及创造性破坏(path creation)的作用,认为影响地方产业(空间)发展的众多要素之间相互依赖、相互影响(刘志高、王缉慈, 2008; Boschma et al,2010)。

演化经济地理学作为演化思想在经济地理学中的应用,被认为是介于新经济地理学和新制度经济地理学之间的经济地理学研究的第三种方法(Boschma et al, 2006),其核心是从演化的角度解释地区经济发展不平衡问题及其演化机制和过程(安虎森等, 2014; Martin et al, 2015)。由于新古典经济学在经济学领域的绝对垄断,演化经济学一时难以获得主流地位,而基于地理和空间视角的演化经济地理学将成为“演化范式”的重要阵地(刘志高, 崔岳春, 2008)。一般认为,演化经济地理学的理论基础来自路径依赖、广义进化论和复杂系统科学(Boshma et al, 2010)。

“路径依赖”(path-dependence)是指人类社会中的技术演进或制度变迁具有一定惯性,即由于路径依赖效应、协调效应、适应性预期和既得利益约束,社会经济和技术系统会沿着既定的方向而不断自我强化。“广义进化论”是利用新奇性、多样性、淘汰、适应、遗传等生物学的概念和要素,说明企业和产业的演化过程,以及对区域经济的贡献(Frenken et al, 2007; Cainelli et al, 2016)。复杂系统科学则强调宏观层面的经济结构与微观个体行为的关系,核心概念包括散逸(dissipation)、非均衡(far-from equilibrium)、涌现(emergence)、自组织(self-organization)、临界(criticality)、共同进化(co-evolution)等(Martin et al, 2007)。

演化经济地理学发展早期,由于受新区域主义的影响,主要关注技术和创新资源对地方产业形成与演化过程的影响。近年来越来越多的演化经济地理学家开始主动加强与关系经济地理学和制度经济地理学的对话,积极吸收关系经济地理学关于经济活动主体间互动研究成果,并日益重视“制度”因素对经济活动空间演化的影响(Boschma et al, 2009; Grabher, 2009),而对空间制度的研究往往需要利用政治经济学的方法和范式(MacKinnon et al, 2009)。空间的演化既受到阶级冲突、权力斗争与资本不均衡积累的影响,又是这些要素综合作用的结果(Essletzbichler, 2009),因此主张综合演化经济地理学与制度经济地理学和政治经济学理解经济空间变化。此外,经济危机后,演化经济地理学家开始由过去侧重产业和区域演化过程的历史分析转向面向未来不确定性环境下地方产业的调适机制研究。继2010年《剑桥区域、经济与社会期刊》(Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society)“区域的弹性”(resilient region)专辑后,众多演化经济地理学家利用“脆弱性”(vulnerability)、“弹性”(resilience)和“调适”(adjustment and adaptation)等概念,积极参与本地(产业)如何应对宏观环境的突变、如何进行修复与调整等研究。这就是所谓的“发展转向”(Martin et al, 2015),强调将经济地理研究的学术成果与社会实践接轨,关注城市和区域发展的问题,尤其是区域间发展不平衡的问题。

2 演化经济地理学在旅游目的地研究中的应用

随着演化经济地理学逐渐成为西方经济地理学的主流,近年来越来越多的演化经济地理学成果被应用于旅游研究。自2011年起,旅游地理学界的主流刊物,如Tourism GeographiesAnnals of Tourism ResearchJournal of Sustainable Tourism等,均刊发了相关研究成果。研究内容既涉及演化经济地理学基础理论部分,同时也涉及应用研究。尽管旅游行业作为低技术的服务部门,难以从技术创新角度探讨旅游产业演化,但Brouder等(2013)认为,由于旅游业高度依托地方资源,具有极强的地域性和历史性,旅游目的地与重视区域经验的演化经济地理学具有天然的耦合性。因此,将演化经济地理学引入旅游研究将有助于旅游学者更多地关注地方和区域经济的发展。Brouder(2014)特别强调路径依赖和共同进化对旅游研究的借鉴,认为其为地方旅游经济提供了渐进的和更为流畅的分析视角。

相较于西方学者,中国学者更倾向于将演化经济地理学的“路径依赖”“共同演化”等概念运用于多种多样的实践探索中(龚伟等, 2014; 黄细嘉等, 2016),更不乏对具体案例地的实证研究(麻学锋等, 2013; 陈钢华等, 2013),这些成果均在一定程度上促进了中国旅游学科的知识建构。

2.1 旅游目的地演化路径研究

路径依赖和共同进化作为演化经济地理学的核心概念,最早被旅游学者所重视。Ma等(2014)认为,路径依赖和多层次共同进化有助于解释旅游区演化的过程和因果机制,并很好地弥补了旅游地生命周期曲线的缺陷——旅游区不能被简单视为旅游产品;而透过旅游目的地的共同进化框架,则能够更好地关注到旅游景区、旅游产品和旅游机构在旅游目的地多层次的共同进化过程。Ma等(2013)通过澳大利亚黄金海岸的案例表明,当地旅游产品和部门的路径创造很大程度上改变了旅游目的地的演化过程,包括企业家精神和地方政府战略在内的、具有较强适应市场或体制环境变化能力的利益相关者是传统的旅游地六阶段曲线所无法考量的。同样,一个区域发展休闲旅游也绝不仅仅是规划的结果。不同的度假区因其内部的空间结构和产业型态的不同而有着不同的演化过程(Papatheodorou, 2004)。无论是西方发达国家(Bramwell et al, 2009; Gill et al, 2011),还是转型国家(Williams et al, 2002),其内部的行政组织、利益相关者的多元演化路径,均会对该地区旅游经济的发展和变化起到决定性作用。

因此,如何调适或创造新的路径就成为旅游目的地发展中的重要课题(Gill et al, 2011)。一个城市或区域可能出现全新的旅游发展路径,企业家的个人行为起到了诱发的作用,而政府的规划和政策则催生出新的适应和开发出新的路径(Meekes et al, 2017),其结果甚至能够改变现有的核心旅游目的地及其治理方式。具体影响因素可分为从宏观到微观3个不同层次。首先,来自于更大社会经济空间的影响,如全球金融危机、城市市民运动等,能够使旅游目的地被迫摆脱原有的发展模式和治理模式,引发旅游发展和市场营销的方法创新(Richards et al, 2007)。其次,包括节事活动在内的大事件的影响,如奥运会、世界杯以及一些具有地方特色的活动(Garud et al, 2012),也将有可能使旅游目的地改变原有的演化路径。最后则是来自利益相关者的影响,其适应能力和创建新路径的能力决定了旅游目的地演化的复杂过程(Sanz-Ibàñez et al, 2014)。利益相关者既包括旅游公司、公共服务部门以及非政府组织的共同作用(Gill et al, 2014),也包括旅游目的地中的知识及网络(Ashworth et al, 2011),甚至街头艺人等非正式经济(Brouder et al, 2014)。

2.2 旅游目的地演化动力机制研究

旅游业与区域经济的相互关系一直是国内外旅游地理学者的关注热点,旅游行业通过上下产业链条,促进区域及城市经济的发展。传统的研究热点包括旅游驱动型经济增长假说(Balaguer et al, 2002)、旅游专业化假说(Brau et al, 2007)等,均利用面板模型分析了旅游对国家或地方经济增长的贡献。大多数研究认为,旅游的专业化能够驱动地方经济的增长。然而,这种基于新古典经济学框架下的研究由于缺乏对产业结构内生型变量的关注,并不能够很好地解释旅游业和旅游活动在区域发展中的作用。对此,不少早期的西方旅游地理学者将目光投向了源自Marshall的“MAR外部性”理论和源自Jacobs的“Jacobs外部性”理论,即从区域经济体系内部探讨旅游目的地演化和经济增长的动力机制(引自Sheng, 2011),知识外溢、人力资本、研发机构、劳动分工和专业化、集聚效应、做中学成为了主要变量。大多数学者认为,经济和产业的多样化能够促进旅游城市的经济和社会可持续发展,而过度专业化则会带来排挤其他行业(Bardolet et al, 2008)、经济社会的两极分化(Sheng et al, 2010)、易受到经济波动影响(Terhorst et al, 2015)等问题。

演化经济地理学的视角则进一步试图超越“MAR外部性”和“Jacobs外部性”之间专业化和多样化的对立,强调多元利益相关者的创新行为与合作机制。演化经济地理学中的广义进化论范式强调,相关联的多样性有利于企业的外部性,从而促进区域内的学习、合作与创新。由于旅游产业集群符合这一特性,不少学者开始关注在旅游集群内企业间知识转移(Shaw et al, 2009)、产业间的关联性对旅游集群演化的作用,也有学者探讨了旅游产业集群内企业间内在的非正式交流与合作机制,及其对集群创新和竞争力提升的重要影响(Jacint et al, 2013)。即充分权衡以新奇性为目的的认知距离和以有效吸收为目的的认知接近性,过度同质化和过度差异化均不利于当地旅游竞争力的提升。

而且相较于均衡模型,演化经济地理学视角往往关注较长时间段的产业结构和企业行为。一般而言,旅游业的发展往往与区域经济中的其他部门发展路径一致。不同城市的旅游业往往具有自身的发展路径,不同类型的企业家和组织对城市旅游业的构造和形态有巨大影响(Rogerson et al, 2014)。演化经济地理学视角关注城市和区域的创新过程如何影响区域内旅游经济的变化,从而了解旅游业在当地嵌入的状况(Brouder et al, 2014)。

2.3 旅游目的地演化的结构性视角

自Butler建立旅游地生命周期演化模型以来,大量的实证研究讨论并检验了该模型在不同地区的适用性,通过引入系统论、社会网络理论等进一步完善并拓展了该理论(Pavlovich, 2004; 徐红罡等, 2005)。近年来,函数模型得到更为广泛的运用,并进一步发展到生态足迹模型、旅游可持续发展评价指标体系等领域(Peng et al, 2017)。然而,不同旅游目的地之间居民和旅游者特性、自然及人文环境等具有明显的差异,而这种区域根植性很大程度上影响了旅游地的演化规律和可持续发展路径,并常常难以通过统一的模型进行测量和计算。演化经济地理学的复杂系统论范式,则能够为旅游地理研究提供了一个超越单线逻辑的叙事,而强调对更为广泛的区域综合要素的关注(Milne et al, 2001; Baggio, 2008),即旅游促进区域内产品、服务、资本、以及企业家技能的转移和流动(Zahra et al, 2007)。其中,城市旅游作为旅游经济中最为复杂的部分,在区域旅游发展中具有中心和关键节点的地位。随着世界各国城市旅游的迅速发展,其复杂的治理问题日益凸显(Brouder et al, 2014),越来越多的学者强调复杂系统论在城市旅游经济发展与可持续发展中的重要性(McDonald, 2009)。

不可否认的是,由于在方法论层面的相对匮乏,包括共同进化在内,复杂系统论下旅游目的地研究的实证成果相对有限,但其思想框架仍然给研究充满不确定因素的旅游目的地可持续发展提供了一种可供借鉴和批判的视角。尤其是近年来文化政治经济学(cultural political economy, CPE)作为一种趋于结构性的视角开始被使用于旅游地的研究中,技术、市场、文化以及国家干预被认为是旅游增加的主要驱动力,而这种驱动下的演化过程往往是非线性的(Williams, 2013)。个人与地方直接参与到全球化网络中(Larsen et al, 2007),以及经济结构变化下工作场所的分散化(Mills et al, 2008)均极大地改变了旅游和移动的形态,并最终重塑了旅游目的地。此外,创意资本(Romero-Padilla et al, 2016)、制度关系(Anton et al, 2017)等均被视为影响旅游目的地变迁的重要因素。这些成果均与复杂系统论有着莫大的关联性和相关性。事实上,复杂系统论乃至整个演化经济地理学和“演化转向”,均是西方近几十年来社会科学“文化转向”“制度转向”趋势下的产物,即认为社会-文化进程在较宏观的尺度上决定了地方的演化路径。旅游目的地作为一个复杂系统,其可持续发展问题一直是这一系列“转向”下西方学者关注的热点。

3 演化经济地理范式对中国旅游目的地研究的借鉴与启示

从以上综述可以看出,演化经济地理学视角下的西方旅游目的地研究,往往将旅游目的地置于一个相对综合的背景下展开讨论。无论是旅游目的地的开发治理模式与路径,还是旅游企业集群的演化过程,抑或是利益相关者的个体行为及其结果,均能够在地方政治语境、社会经济条件下展开阐释。但不可否认,与区域内多视角的综合相比,西方现有成果在空间尺度上却较为单一,以本地的区域尺度为主,忽略了全球政治经济格局、国家法律法规以及自然和技术条件改变等所引发的旅游目的地发展路径的变迁。而另一方面,正如之前一些国内学者所指出的,国内演化经济地理学在旅游地演化方面的实证研究仍然有限(尹贻梅等, 2006; 查艳艳等, 2016)。旅游地理学是一门地域性很强的学科。中国旅游目的地的发展和演变,具有很强的独特性,无法全然照搬西方的理论体系和基本概念。今后中国语境下的旅游目的地研究,一方面可以扎根中国本土的社会经济语境开展探讨,进而构建理论,而另一方面亦可以充分借鉴国外理论成果并将其运用于中国的旅游地理现象。本文认为,立足于历史过程和空间异质性的演化经济地理学的范式,恰恰能够在这两条路径中架起一座沟通的桥梁,从而对正努力充实学科理论基础的中国旅游地理学提供些许借鉴和反思。

3.1 加强与政治经济学和制度经济学的结合

尽管国内的研究相对有限,但地方政治与区域政策始终是西方旅游研究的课题之一。20世纪70至80年代西方各国意识到旅游市场的市场失灵并开始有意识地通过各种途径规范和引导旅游业的发展(Mathews, 1975; Richter, 1983b)。与西方国家新自由主义影响下的旅游政策不同(Shone et al, 2008),社会主义制度下的中国受到较大程度意识形态的影响(Richter, 1983a)。近年来,西方的“新政治经济学”认为经济和政治是相互渗透的,因此需要将二者结合起来分析,其主要关注了管制和政策在不同资本主义模式下的特征、社会和经济制度可持续性问题、不平等问题以及全球化下新世界秩序的演变(Payne, 2006)。而着重探讨制度结构及制度变迁(包括正式和非正式)对经济效率和经济发展影响的制度经济学——新制度经济学已被广泛运用于地理学研究中。通过加强演化经济地理学范式与政治经济学、制度经济学方法的结合,在此基础上进行区域间比较以及跨国比较将有助于更好地理解中国旅游政策在不同区域政策产生和演化的内在机制和外在环境,进而解释中国特色的旅游目的地演化过程。

近年来,伴随着中国旅游从传统的观光经济向体验经济转型,包括基础设施、配套服务在内的旅游公共服务体系愈发受到关注和重视。从2009年国务院发布的《关于加快发展旅游业的意见》提出把旅游业培育成国民经济的战略性支柱产业和人民群众更加满意的现代服务业两大宏伟目标,到2016年国家旅游局提出的“全域旅游”理念,均体现出了这一趋势。与西方国家不同,中国的旅游目的地普遍采取的是一种自上而下的治理模式(Zhang et al, 2014)。中国学者也普遍认为旅游公共服务体系应当由政府主导(黄燕玲等, 2011),甚至是供给的唯一主体。而另一方面,旅游公共服务体系是一个包含多个要素和子系统的复杂系统,其演化过程往往受到多种不同因素的影响和制约。“路径依赖”“创造性破坏”等概念,将有助于我们探索不同旅游目的地的公共服务体系发展模式和治理模式。

3.2 基于多尺度耦合机制的旅游目的地研究

旅游目的地的本质仍然是人-地关系问题。目的地系统的自组织演化,一方面受系统内部要素与子系统的影响,另一方面则受到外部宏观环境的制约。旅游目的地的演化往往是多个空间尺度共同作用的结果,既包括宏观层面的全球旅游行为和国家管制,也包括中观层面区域和城市产业及政策的推动,以及微观层面多元利益主体行为。尽管近年来中国的旅游目的地取得了巨大的发展,但基础设施建设、环境保护、收益分配、旅游企业运营等方面仍然存在着巨大的区域不平衡和城乡不平衡。无论是国际社会普遍提倡的对旅游目的地环境保持敬意的“友好型”旅游发展的道路(Wood et al, 1991),还是越来越受到国内旅游学者关注的旅游开发过程中保护自然环境、人类生态、文化遗产与多样性以及分配公平、代际正义等问题,均涉及多尺度视角的考量。

从旅游目的地与城乡空间的关系来看,中国各地方政府逐步向“服务型政府”转型,旅游目的地的开发与管理固然要保证促进地域经济发展,更要成为提升当地生态环境、促进本地居民福祉的重要手段。中国的城乡关系不同于西方,传统中国以农业立国,城市更多地是作为国家或地方的统治中心,其主要功能不是经济功能而是军事和政治功能。(张利民, 2009)城市经济以手工业和商业为主,对乡村具有很强的依赖性。因此,在旅游资源的富集度和内涵性上,城市与乡村相比并没有明显的绝对优势,生活方式、文化和情趣没有凸显出过多的优越感和特殊性。另一方面,中国幅员辽阔,自然环境多样,民族众多,这就使得城乡旅游资源的开发和利用中,不得不考虑生态环境和社会文化的地域性与多样性,立足各地的省情、市情、县情,综合考虑自然资源、文化特色、经济发展等状况,差别化开展旅游资源的保护和利用,从而尽可能地避免地区标准的一元化。

从产业角度看,演化经济地理学强调多元利益相关者的创新行为与合作机制,相关联的多样性有利于企业的外部性,从而促进区域内的学习、合作与创新。尽管总体而言,中国的旅游产业仍然处于相对低端竞争的环境,西方学者所关注的知识转移、相互学习、非正式交流与合作机制极为有限,但东部沿海地区部分开发程度较高、管理较为完善的旅游目的地,已经开始出现旅游企业间的交流、学习与合作,以及旅游行业和文化创意、电子信息等行业的交叉融合。而在更多的欠发达地区,乡村旅游作为“乡村振兴”的主要抓手,“旅游+农业”成为愈发普遍的形式。对此,我们既需要综合、整体、系统地考虑旅游发展过程中经济、社会、资源、环境等多方面的相互关系和协调发展(张树民等, 2012),更需要对旅游及其相关产业中的不同利益相关者进行微观视角的考察。

3.3 旅游目的地多元主体的空间行为研究

行为研究越来越成为中国旅游研究的主流。当旅游作为后现代社会的重要载体和方式(约翰·厄里等, 2016),旅游与探亲访友、临时居住等其他迁移活动之间的界限已越发模糊(Williams et al, 2000)。演化经济地理学亦将能够从微观的个体流动性的角度关注旅游开发对旅游目的地的影响,尤其是结构视角下微观个体的具体行为。在演化视角下,个人行为不能简单理解为主流经济学和行为经济学逻辑下个体决策结果,而应当视作个人以往旅行经验和学习经验(Ryan, 1998; King, 2002),以及社会关系网络(Larsen et al, 2006)的产物。关注旅游地的可持续发展,要关注游客行为的变化,尤其是社会文化语境下的个体行为变迁。

改革开放40年来,中国社会经济有了巨大飞跃,但区域差异、城乡差异、代际差异仍然显著。尤其是近年来,伴随着中国居民旅游行为正逐渐从传统的“观光旅游”向“体验休闲”过渡,国家和地方政府也将乡村旅游视作“乡村振兴”的重要抓手,旅游业与农、牧、渔等第一产业的融合方兴未艾,更多的利益相关者参与到旅游开发活动中。在不同区域的社会经济语境下,旅游目的地的各主体对其演化路径往往起着不同的决定性作用。通过对参与旅游活动和旅游开发的相关利益者的研究,将有助于更好地推动中国旅游目的地的建设和发展。

演化经济地理学范式为中国的旅游目的地的可持续发展研究提供了一个全新的视角,即从结构(社会结构、时空结构)—过程(个体行为)的角度分析游客的旅游行为、企业的开发行为乃至政府的决策和规划行为对旅游地可持续发展的影响。尤其在中国现行政治经济体制下,在旅游目的地的规划开发、管理治理、转型升级等方面,地方领导人的个人意志往往起到较大作用(Airey et al, 2010; 保继刚等, 2012)。

旅游目的地和旅游产业,由多元行为主体和利益相关者参与并相互影响的部门,其关系范式和制度范式将有助于探讨游客、当地居民以及从业者和主管部门间的相互关系。演化经济地理学的本体论是一种有机、系统、动态、开放的世界观,它不同于新古典范式下原子、静止、封闭的机械本体论。这种世界观更倾向于多元化的方法论,结构主义方法、比较研究方法、过程分析方法、观察方法等均在现有研究中得到体现。在旅游目的地研究中,对产业、社会以及环境等过度抽象的现象将不会存在,而更为全面、经验性的研究成果将被综合进来探讨。

4 结论

发轫于欧洲的演化经济地理学,与地理学的区域研究传统一脉相承,其从演化的角度解释地区经济发展不平衡问题及其演化机制和过程,核心在于路径依赖、复杂系统以及广义进化论3个层面。从西方演化经济地理学自身的发展和演化过程来看,演化经济地理学主要关注制造业和创意产业的创新机制对区域经济发展和转型的贡献,近年来也开始被应用于农业、服务业以及旅游产业的研究中。作为旅游目的地研究的新范式和新方法,演化经济地理学在旅游目的地研究中的应用广泛,包括了旅游地发展路径分化、旅游目的地治理、旅游产业与区域经济、旅游地的可持续发展等领域。此外,演化范式下的旅游目的地研究还融入了作为结构视角的文化政治经济学和过程视角的个人行为研究。演化经济地理学在方法论层面是开放的,相较于实证方法,一定程度上更倾向于人本主义和结构主义的方法。

而另一方面,中国旅游目的地的发展和演变过程,和西方发达国家的经验有着较大的区别,呈现出自上而下的治理模式。只有在充分立足于中国旅游目的地的实际状况和基本国情的基础上,才能够更好地构建“中国特色”的旅游目的地理论体系,探索更为多元化的旅游研究方法。加强政治经济学和制度经济学的研究能够为中国的旅游实践提供动态化的政策分析视角,进而有助于旅游公共服务体系的转型升级;而加强多尺度耦合机制和多元主体的行为研究将有助于探索不同利益相关者参与下中国旅游目的地的可持续发展路径。通过对旅游目的地的研究,尤其是中国社会经济语境下典型旅游目的地的案例研究,在探究不同区域、不同旅游资源类型和社会空间结构的共性和差异性基础上,揭示旅游目的地空间演化的独特动力与演化过程,将有助于促进演化经济地理学的理论创新和视域拓展。

与诸多人文地理学的分支一样,中国的旅游地理学以“任务带学科”的方式获得了巨大发展,并在很大程度上推动了中国旅游研究的进程。旅游作为人类社会从现代语境向后现代语境转型的产物,使得旅游地理学注定不同于传统学科所具有的宏大叙事和抽象高度,为数不多的理论成果早已消解于大量针对具体现象的描述和研究中。但概念基础和理论基础的缺失,使得旅游地理学乃至旅游研究成果呈现碎片化倾向。地理学科有着丰富多元的思想源流、范式方法乃至价值取向,这也是其历经变革而长盛不衰的原因之一。旅游地理学作为地理学科的重要组成部分,依托地理学的枝干,并在借鉴其他传统学科优秀成果的基础上,也将逐步形成自身的基本范式和学科边界。演化经济地理学尽管自身并无一套独特和明确的研究方法,但包括路径依赖、共同演化、调适等核心概念和理论同样为旅游地理学乃至旅游研究提供了重要的范式指引,而其背后所蕴含的深厚的哲学基础,对思想匮乏的中国旅游研究来说或许是一剂良药。

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.


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. Study and Practice, (7): 5-18. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

经济地理学研究的是经济活动在空间上的不均衡分布。围绕着这一议题,在过去的三十多年时间里,经济地理学的理论经历了几次重大的转变。其中,演化经济地理学是经济地理领域最新的一次转变,它把经济看成是一个种群系统,研究空间在随时间的演化过程中起到何种作用的问题,其理论构架由广义达尔文主义、路径依赖和复杂性理论组成。利用演化经济地理学理论可以解释产业聚集区、工业区、城市的形成过程,从而找出空间非均衡发展的规律,为区域经济发展提供政策依据。
[2] 保继刚, 李郇. 2012.

“借口”: 中国城市资本高度集聚的政治经济学分析框架

[J]. 人文地理, 27(4): 1-8.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

面对改革开放以来中国快速城市化现象,本文从中国投资拉动的经济增长模式出发,发现中国城市存在着高度积累,特别是行政级别高的城市持续投资增长的现象,在分析投资、投资效率与大型事件关系的基础上,提出了官员晋升竞标赛和财政分权预算约束条件下的制度机会主义行为假设,认为大型事件不过是政府构建的一个有利于在城市体系下,通过打破传统的政府预算约束,实现资本高度集中促进经济持续增长的制度机会主义行为。"借口"模式旨在揭示大型事件现象背后的政治与经济激励,并以2010年广州举办亚运会为例,按政府构建—突破约束—官员晋升的结构,分析了广州市政府构建全社会共识,举办亚运会带来巨额投资促进城市发展实现政治与经济激励的事实,为"借口"模式提供了实证的案例。最后,对"借口"模式的未来趋势进行了探讨。

[Bao J G, Li X.2012.

"Excuses": A political economic analysis of the high concentration of capital in urban China

. Human Geography, 27(4): 1-8. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

面对改革开放以来中国快速城市化现象,本文从中国投资拉动的经济增长模式出发,发现中国城市存在着高度积累,特别是行政级别高的城市持续投资增长的现象,在分析投资、投资效率与大型事件关系的基础上,提出了官员晋升竞标赛和财政分权预算约束条件下的制度机会主义行为假设,认为大型事件不过是政府构建的一个有利于在城市体系下,通过打破传统的政府预算约束,实现资本高度集中促进经济持续增长的制度机会主义行为。"借口"模式旨在揭示大型事件现象背后的政治与经济激励,并以2010年广州举办亚运会为例,按政府构建—突破约束—官员晋升的结构,分析了广州市政府构建全社会共识,举办亚运会带来巨额投资促进城市发展实现政治与经济激励的事实,为"借口"模式提供了实证的案例。最后,对"借口"模式的未来趋势进行了探讨。
[3] 陈钢华, 保继刚. 2013.

旅游度假区开发模式变迁的路径依赖及其生成机制: 三亚亚龙湾案例

[J]. 旅游学刊, 28(8): 58-68.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.08.006      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游度假区作为开展度假旅游活动的专业化区域,是我国旅游产业实现转型升级的重要载体。旅游度假区的开发模式是目前国内外学界关注的焦点之一,但鲜见关于开发模式变迁的系统讨论和理论解释。文章指出,亚龙湾旅游度假区的开发模式经历了由“政府主导”模式到“企业主导”模式再到“政府主导、企业配合”模式的转变;并明确指出开发模式的变迁存在路径依赖。文章在探讨理解制度变迁路径依赖的两种不同进路的基础上,采纳“道路分岔口”的进路,并整合制度费用理论,提出了解释开发模式变迁路径依赖生成机制的基本命题,并进行了验证。研究表明,在亚龙湾旅游度假区开发模式选择的关键性节点上,理论上对开发模式选择具有影响力的行动主体面临诸多选择。但是,制度费用的存在从两个方面结构化了潜在选项:一方面,作为一种制度安排的开发模式的选择必须考虑到放弃之前开发模式的机会成本;另一方面,也必须考虑到选择新的开发模式的潜在新增成本。制度遗产、利益集团讨价还价能力等均不同程度、不同方向地影响了开发模式的制度费用和制度收益,从而影响开发模式的选择与变迁路径。该研究推进了关于海南乃至转型期中国制度变迁的理论解释,并拓展和深化了原有制度变迁的路径依赖理论。

[Chen G H, Bao J G.2013.

Path dependence in developmental model changes of tourist resorts: A case study of Yalong Bay National Tourist Resort in Sanya, China

. Tourism Tribune, 28(8): 58-68. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2013.08.006      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游度假区作为开展度假旅游活动的专业化区域,是我国旅游产业实现转型升级的重要载体。旅游度假区的开发模式是目前国内外学界关注的焦点之一,但鲜见关于开发模式变迁的系统讨论和理论解释。文章指出,亚龙湾旅游度假区的开发模式经历了由“政府主导”模式到“企业主导”模式再到“政府主导、企业配合”模式的转变;并明确指出开发模式的变迁存在路径依赖。文章在探讨理解制度变迁路径依赖的两种不同进路的基础上,采纳“道路分岔口”的进路,并整合制度费用理论,提出了解释开发模式变迁路径依赖生成机制的基本命题,并进行了验证。研究表明,在亚龙湾旅游度假区开发模式选择的关键性节点上,理论上对开发模式选择具有影响力的行动主体面临诸多选择。但是,制度费用的存在从两个方面结构化了潜在选项:一方面,作为一种制度安排的开发模式的选择必须考虑到放弃之前开发模式的机会成本;另一方面,也必须考虑到选择新的开发模式的潜在新增成本。制度遗产、利益集团讨价还价能力等均不同程度、不同方向地影响了开发模式的制度费用和制度收益,从而影响开发模式的选择与变迁路径。该研究推进了关于海南乃至转型期中国制度变迁的理论解释,并拓展和深化了原有制度变迁的路径依赖理论。
[4] 龚伟, 赵中华. 2014.

乡村旅游社区景观空间演化研究

[J]. 世界地理研究, 23(3): 140-148.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9479.2014.03.015      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

乡村旅游社区景观空间是在乡村旅游社区地域范围内,由于人类活动所产生的文化景观的总和.近年来,随着乡村旅游的快速发展,乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化受到人们的高度关注.本文将乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化置于演化经济地理研究框架内,认为其经历形成之前阶段、形成阶段、发展阶段和锁定或创新阶段四个阶段,每个阶段特征和演化机制各不相同.乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化是在遗传机制、变异机制等内因和选择机制、起点状态、关键事件等外因共同作用下,随着产业变迁而发生的具有路径依赖特征的演化过程.

[Gong W, Zhao Z H.2014.

Evolvement of rural tourism community landscape in Qianwei Village, Shanghai

. World Regional Studies, 23(3): 104-148. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-9479.2014.03.015      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

乡村旅游社区景观空间是在乡村旅游社区地域范围内,由于人类活动所产生的文化景观的总和.近年来,随着乡村旅游的快速发展,乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化受到人们的高度关注.本文将乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化置于演化经济地理研究框架内,认为其经历形成之前阶段、形成阶段、发展阶段和锁定或创新阶段四个阶段,每个阶段特征和演化机制各不相同.乡村旅游社区景观空间的演化是在遗传机制、变异机制等内因和选择机制、起点状态、关键事件等外因共同作用下,随着产业变迁而发生的具有路径依赖特征的演化过程.
[5] 黄细嘉, 李凉. 2016.

全域旅游背景下的文明旅游路径依赖

[J]. 旅游学刊, 31(8): 13-15.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2016.08.006      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

进入“十三五”,我国旅游业从景点旅游向全域旅游模式转变,全力对接大众旅游时代。在一定区域内,以旅游业为优势产业,进行全方位、系统化优化提升,实现区域资源有机整合、产业融合发展、社会共建共享,以旅游业带动和促进经济社会协调发展的区域协调发展理念和模式,强调实现地域整体、要素组合、社会全员共建旅游业,实现景点内外一体化、整体环境生态化、整体氛围文明化、整体产业协调化。

[Hang X J, Li L.2016.

Path dependence of travel politely on "holistic tourism destinations"

. Tourism Tribune, 31(8): 13-15. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2016.08.006      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

进入“十三五”,我国旅游业从景点旅游向全域旅游模式转变,全力对接大众旅游时代。在一定区域内,以旅游业为优势产业,进行全方位、系统化优化提升,实现区域资源有机整合、产业融合发展、社会共建共享,以旅游业带动和促进经济社会协调发展的区域协调发展理念和模式,强调实现地域整体、要素组合、社会全员共建旅游业,实现景点内外一体化、整体环境生态化、整体氛围文明化、整体产业协调化。
[6] 黄燕玲, 罗盛锋, 丁培毅. 2010.

供需感知视角下的旅游公共服务发展研究: 以桂林国家旅游综合改革试验区为例

[J]. 旅游学刊, 25(7): 70-76.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2010.07.015      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游公共服务研究是我国旅游发展现阶段的重要课题.本文以全国首个城市为单位建设的国家旅游综合改革试验区--桂林为例,从旅游公共服务概念与体系分析着手,采用问卷调查与访谈相结合的方法,基于供需双方感知评价对旅游公共服务内容、质量、体系构建及发展期望进行研究.结果显示,旅游公共服务体系亟待完善;旅游服务质量监控与安全救助系统完备与否成为旅游公共服务优劣的关键测评点;交通服务仍然扮演举足轻重的角色;旅游产业与教育系统沟通不畅、旅游志愿者服务系统缺位影响旅游地整体服务水平提升,等等.文章据此提出相应对策.该成果为推进区域现代服务业发展、提高旅游公共服务质量、完善服务体系提供适时反馈信息,以做出有针对性的改进.

[Huang Y L, Luo S F, Ding P Y.2010.

Study on the development of tourism public service under the perspective of demand and supply: Taking Guilin "National Tourism Comprehensive Reform Testing Area" as an example

. Tourism Tribune, 25(7): 70-76. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2010.07.015      URL      Magsci      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游公共服务研究是我国旅游发展现阶段的重要课题.本文以全国首个城市为单位建设的国家旅游综合改革试验区--桂林为例,从旅游公共服务概念与体系分析着手,采用问卷调查与访谈相结合的方法,基于供需双方感知评价对旅游公共服务内容、质量、体系构建及发展期望进行研究.结果显示,旅游公共服务体系亟待完善;旅游服务质量监控与安全救助系统完备与否成为旅游公共服务优劣的关键测评点;交通服务仍然扮演举足轻重的角色;旅游产业与教育系统沟通不畅、旅游志愿者服务系统缺位影响旅游地整体服务水平提升,等等.文章据此提出相应对策.该成果为推进区域现代服务业发展、提高旅游公共服务质量、完善服务体系提供适时反馈信息,以做出有针对性的改进.
[7] 李小建, 苗长虹. 2004.

西方经济地理学新进展及其启示

[J]. 地理学报, 59(S1): 153-161.

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2004.z1.021      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

从地理学家的制度、文化、关系和尺度转向及主流经济学家的"新经济地理学"诸方面,评述了西方经济地理学近年的研究进展,指出这两支脉络交互学习有利于经济地理学的发展.为发展中国特色经济地理学,应科学借鉴西方经验,注重在研究中分析和提炼理论问题,不断引进相关学科理论,合理使用模型和计量方法,加强微观视角和政治经济研究;在此基础上,应重视中国经济地理学的发展背景,科学看待已有研究特点,发掘特殊的思维方法.中国国情下的独特问题的研究,比如经济发展空间格局的理论研究,区域文化与经济关系研究,区域人口、资源、环境与经济协调发展研究等,对于推出受国际学术界关注的成果,具有十分重要意义.

[Li X J, Miao C H.2004.

Recent developments in western economic geographies and theoretical thinking for China's counterpart

. Acta Geographica Sinica, 59(S1): 153-161. ]

https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2004.z1.021      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

从地理学家的制度、文化、关系和尺度转向及主流经济学家的"新经济地理学"诸方面,评述了西方经济地理学近年的研究进展,指出这两支脉络交互学习有利于经济地理学的发展.为发展中国特色经济地理学,应科学借鉴西方经验,注重在研究中分析和提炼理论问题,不断引进相关学科理论,合理使用模型和计量方法,加强微观视角和政治经济研究;在此基础上,应重视中国经济地理学的发展背景,科学看待已有研究特点,发掘特殊的思维方法.中国国情下的独特问题的研究,比如经济发展空间格局的理论研究,区域文化与经济关系研究,区域人口、资源、环境与经济协调发展研究等,对于推出受国际学术界关注的成果,具有十分重要意义.
[8] 刘志高, 崔岳春. 2008.

演化经济地理学: 21世纪的经济地理学

[J]. 社会科学战线, (6): 65-75.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

20世纪90年代以来,经济地理学家开始吸收演化经济学的基本思想,经济地理学中出现的"文化转向"、"制度转向"和"关系转向"以及活跃的创新系统研究也都为演化经济地理学的发展做了较好的铺垫。演化经济学并没有获得经济学的主流地位,但是演化经济地理学却在欧洲开始趋向主流地位,可能成为演化主义获得主流地位的重要领域。在中国经济快速发展和既有问题等特殊背景下,中国经济地理学家的马克思主义经济学涵养、中国演化经济学的兴起、活跃的创新研究与集群研究,都将促进演化经济地理学在中国的传播和发展。中国学者可以在产业演化和区域演化等方面为国际演化经济地理学界和演化经济学界作出特殊的贡献。

[Liu Z G, Cui Y C.2008.

Evolutionary economic geography: Economic geography in the 21st century

. Social Science Front, (6): 65-75. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

20世纪90年代以来,经济地理学家开始吸收演化经济学的基本思想,经济地理学中出现的"文化转向"、"制度转向"和"关系转向"以及活跃的创新系统研究也都为演化经济地理学的发展做了较好的铺垫。演化经济学并没有获得经济学的主流地位,但是演化经济地理学却在欧洲开始趋向主流地位,可能成为演化主义获得主流地位的重要领域。在中国经济快速发展和既有问题等特殊背景下,中国经济地理学家的马克思主义经济学涵养、中国演化经济学的兴起、活跃的创新研究与集群研究,都将促进演化经济地理学在中国的传播和发展。中国学者可以在产业演化和区域演化等方面为国际演化经济地理学界和演化经济学界作出特殊的贡献。
[9] 刘志高, 王缉慈. 2008.

共同演化及其空间隐喻

[J]. 中国地质大学学报(社会科学版), (4): 85-91.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-0169.2008.04.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

共同演化是一种自然和社会现象,引起科学界的高度关注,但是其空间内涵并没有得到明确讨论。本文首先介绍生物学领域的共同演化进展,并指出共同演化研究的基本单元是种群。第二部分在提出共同演化研究的刚性标准后指出,经济学和经济地理学领域的共同演化研究首先必须是演化经济学的,并回顾了经济管理领域内共同演化研究进展。第三部分提出并讨论了共同演化的空间内涵:即企业共生和产业共栖,组织、技术和制度同时本地化,跨地界多层嵌套演化。

[Liu Z G, Wang J C.2008.

Coevolution and its spatial implication

. Journal of China University of Geosciences (Social Sciences Edition), (4): 85-91. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-0169.2008.04.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

共同演化是一种自然和社会现象,引起科学界的高度关注,但是其空间内涵并没有得到明确讨论。本文首先介绍生物学领域的共同演化进展,并指出共同演化研究的基本单元是种群。第二部分在提出共同演化研究的刚性标准后指出,经济学和经济地理学领域的共同演化研究首先必须是演化经济学的,并回顾了经济管理领域内共同演化研究进展。第三部分提出并讨论了共同演化的空间内涵:即企业共生和产业共栖,组织、技术和制度同时本地化,跨地界多层嵌套演化。
[10] 麻学锋, 孙根年. 2013.

旅游产业生长点的SGGT模式与空间演化: 以张家界为例

[J]. 地理研究, 32(10): 1923-1936.

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201310015      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

This paper defined the concept of tourism industry growth point and reinterpreted tourism industry growth path by applying the"path dependence"theory.With the example of Zhangjiajie tourism industry growth point,it put forward a universal SGGT analysis mode and researched its spatial evolution process and dynamic mechanism.The results showed:(1) specific historical conditions and social economic environment was a foundation for the formation of Zhangjiajie tourism growth point;demand and cultivation was the key factor of tourism growth point germination;innovation and development was the guarantee of tourism growth point while the tourism growth point was promoted to be growth pole by disintegration;(2)the three tourism growth points hangjiajie National Forest Park,Tianzi Mountain and Suoxiyu ecame the core growth points after they realized unification of the administrative jurisdiction in Zhangjiajie scenic spot by path creation and listed as a world heritage site;(3)driven by the generating power of tourism industry growth point and world heritage site management,Tianmen Mountain becomes a new growth point with its high quality tourism resources;(4)the two growth points of Wulingyuan scenic spot and Tianmen Mountain were formed as a result of joint action by tourism industry agglomeration and path creation in Zhangjiajie.The results provide a great benefit for the local government and enterprises to understand the tourism industry growth path from the perspective of tourism industry growth point and further offer scientific guidance for the sustainable development of tourism industry in the world heritage site.

[Ma X F, Sun G N.2013.

SGGT mode and spatial evolution of growth point in the tourism industry: Taking Zhangjiajie as an example

. Geographical Research, 32(10): 1923-1936. ]

https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201310015      URL      [本文引用: 3]      摘要

This paper defined the concept of tourism industry growth point and reinterpreted tourism industry growth path by applying the"path dependence"theory.With the example of Zhangjiajie tourism industry growth point,it put forward a universal SGGT analysis mode and researched its spatial evolution process and dynamic mechanism.The results showed:(1) specific historical conditions and social economic environment was a foundation for the formation of Zhangjiajie tourism growth point;demand and cultivation was the key factor of tourism growth point germination;innovation and development was the guarantee of tourism growth point while the tourism growth point was promoted to be growth pole by disintegration;(2)the three tourism growth points hangjiajie National Forest Park,Tianzi Mountain and Suoxiyu ecame the core growth points after they realized unification of the administrative jurisdiction in Zhangjiajie scenic spot by path creation and listed as a world heritage site;(3)driven by the generating power of tourism industry growth point and world heritage site management,Tianmen Mountain becomes a new growth point with its high quality tourism resources;(4)the two growth points of Wulingyuan scenic spot and Tianmen Mountain were formed as a result of joint action by tourism industry agglomeration and path creation in Zhangjiajie.The results provide a great benefit for the local government and enterprises to understand the tourism industry growth path from the perspective of tourism industry growth point and further offer scientific guidance for the sustainable development of tourism industry in the world heritage site.
[11] 徐红罡, 郑海燕, 保继刚. 2005.

城市旅游地生命周期的系统动态模拟

[J]. 人文地理, 20(5): 66-69.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2398.2005.05.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

对城市旅游和旅游地生命周期的概念进行了分析和界定,在评述国内外相关研究成果的基础上,提出了一般城市旅游地生命周期的研究框架.并论述了系统动力学方法对于旅游地生命周期研究的适用性和有效性,构建了一般城市旅游地旅游发展的系统动态模型,解释了旅游地发展的系统内部结构和各要素的作用机制。

[Xu H G, Zheng H Y, Bao J G.2005.

The system dynamic model for urban tourist destination cycle of evolution

. Human Geography, 20(5): 66-69. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2398.2005.05.014      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

对城市旅游和旅游地生命周期的概念进行了分析和界定,在评述国内外相关研究成果的基础上,提出了一般城市旅游地生命周期的研究框架.并论述了系统动力学方法对于旅游地生命周期研究的适用性和有效性,构建了一般城市旅游地旅游发展的系统动态模型,解释了旅游地发展的系统内部结构和各要素的作用机制。
[12] 尹贻梅, 刘志高, 陆玉麒. 2006.

旅游目的地发展新思维: 来自演化经济学的启示

[J]. 地理与地理信息科学, 22(1): 84-88.

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0504.2006.01.018      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游目的地研究具有综合性,需要多学科理论的指导。演化经济学以动态演化的视角解释社会经济过程,强调微观和宏观两个层面的互动,认为新异是演化的根本动力,是研究复杂经济现象的重要方法。目前创新已成为旅游目的地竞争的决定性因素,有必要在旅游目的地研究中引入演化经济思想。回顾旅游目的地的实践和理论研究的发展,介绍演化经济理论的起源和基本特征,分析演化、新奇和惯例、路径依赖等演化经济的核心概念在旅游目的地研究中的涵义;基于演化经济思想,提出发展旅游目的地的若干建议,如建立和完善旅游创新系统、构建旅游目的地生产网络等。

[Yin Y M, Liu Z G, Lu Y Q.2006.

A new view of tourism destination development: Implications from evolutionary economics thoughts

. Geography and Geo-Information Science, 22(1): 84-88. ]

https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0504.2006.01.018      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游目的地研究具有综合性,需要多学科理论的指导。演化经济学以动态演化的视角解释社会经济过程,强调微观和宏观两个层面的互动,认为新异是演化的根本动力,是研究复杂经济现象的重要方法。目前创新已成为旅游目的地竞争的决定性因素,有必要在旅游目的地研究中引入演化经济思想。回顾旅游目的地的实践和理论研究的发展,介绍演化经济理论的起源和基本特征,分析演化、新奇和惯例、路径依赖等演化经济的核心概念在旅游目的地研究中的涵义;基于演化经济思想,提出发展旅游目的地的若干建议,如建立和完善旅游创新系统、构建旅游目的地生产网络等。
[13] 约翰·厄里, 乔纳斯·拉森. 2016. 游客的凝视 [M]. 第3版. 黄宛瑜, 译. 上海: 格致出版社.

[本文引用: 1]     

[Urry J, Larsen J.2016. The tourist gaze. The 3rd edition. Translated by Huang W Y. Shanghai, China: SAGE Publications Ltd. ]

[本文引用: 1]     

[14] 查艳艳, 杨兴柱. 2016.

旅游地演化理论研究进展

[J]. 旅游论坛, 9(1): 20-26.

https://doi.org/10.15962/j.cnki.tourismforum.201601004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游地演化理论研究一直是地理学界关注的热点。在旅游地演化发展研究中,旅游地生命周期理论是旅游地演化研究的重要理论基石,随着旅游业的飞速发展,传统的生命周期理论日益显出不足并受到质疑。首先回顾了2002-2014年近14年的国内外关于旅游地演化理论及相关演化理论,并对其如何解释案例地发展演变的研究成果进行详细阐述,通过归纳旅游地生命周期理论、旅游地生命力理论、点-轴理论、系统动力学理论、社会网络理论以及耗散结构理论实证研究成果,并进一步总结出传统演化理论及相关旅游地演化理论在解释旅游地演变中的优势与不足,分析了国内外学者在传统旅游地演化理论基础上的补充、提升与创新;同时总结出经济地理学演化理论在旅游研究中的应用,最后展望经济地理学演化理论在旅游地研究内容、研究方法、研究尺度等方面的发展及今后需进一步深化研究的方向。

[Zha Y Y, Yang X Z.2016.

The progress of tourism destination evolution theory research

. Tourism Forum, 9(1): 20-26. ]

https://doi.org/10.15962/j.cnki.tourismforum.201601004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

旅游地演化理论研究一直是地理学界关注的热点。在旅游地演化发展研究中,旅游地生命周期理论是旅游地演化研究的重要理论基石,随着旅游业的飞速发展,传统的生命周期理论日益显出不足并受到质疑。首先回顾了2002-2014年近14年的国内外关于旅游地演化理论及相关演化理论,并对其如何解释案例地发展演变的研究成果进行详细阐述,通过归纳旅游地生命周期理论、旅游地生命力理论、点-轴理论、系统动力学理论、社会网络理论以及耗散结构理论实证研究成果,并进一步总结出传统演化理论及相关旅游地演化理论在解释旅游地演变中的优势与不足,分析了国内外学者在传统旅游地演化理论基础上的补充、提升与创新;同时总结出经济地理学演化理论在旅游研究中的应用,最后展望经济地理学演化理论在旅游地研究内容、研究方法、研究尺度等方面的发展及今后需进一步深化研究的方向。
[15] 张树民, 钟林生, 王灵恩. 2012.

基于旅游系统理论的中国乡村旅游发展模式探讨

[J]. 地理研究, 31(11): 2094-2103.

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2012110016      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于旅游系统理论分析中国乡村旅游发展模式,能更全面的识别我国乡村旅游发展的驱动要素及其相互作用机理。在概述旅游系统理论、乡村旅游系统及其驱动因素的基础上,归纳了我国乡村旅游的发展模式类型与特点,即需求拉动型模式、供给推动型模式、中介影响型模式、支持作用型模式以及混合驱动型模式,并且选取北京昌平康陵村、山西皇城村、安徽黟县西递村、西藏林芝扎西岗村等典型案例,对乡村旅游系统及驱动机制、利益主体等方面进行了研究,为我国乡村旅游资源的开发、乡村旅游政策制定提供支持与借鉴。

[Zhang S M, Zhong L S, Wang L E.2012.

Research on development model of China's rural tourism: Based on tourism system theory

. Geographical Research, 31(11): 2094-2103.]

https://doi.org/10.11821/yj2012110016      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

基于旅游系统理论分析中国乡村旅游发展模式,能更全面的识别我国乡村旅游发展的驱动要素及其相互作用机理。在概述旅游系统理论、乡村旅游系统及其驱动因素的基础上,归纳了我国乡村旅游的发展模式类型与特点,即需求拉动型模式、供给推动型模式、中介影响型模式、支持作用型模式以及混合驱动型模式,并且选取北京昌平康陵村、山西皇城村、安徽黟县西递村、西藏林芝扎西岗村等典型案例,对乡村旅游系统及驱动机制、利益主体等方面进行了研究,为我国乡村旅游资源的开发、乡村旅游政策制定提供支持与借鉴。
[16] 张利民. 2009.

城市史视域中的城乡关系

[J]. 学术月刊, (10): 135-145.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国,城市史研究是从个案起步,逐渐扩展到群体城市、区域城市、不同类型城市以及制度、体制等各个层面;以阐述城市发展脉络,探求其特点与个性,构成了城市史研究的基础。随之,研究者将城市置入区域或更广阔的空间环境、网络系统,研究城市与周边的关系、城市的定位以及城市间的比较等,拓宽了思路,开阔了视野。

[Zhang L M.2009.

Urban-rural relationship in the view of urban history research

. Academic Monthly, (10): 135-145. ]

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

在中国,城市史研究是从个案起步,逐渐扩展到群体城市、区域城市、不同类型城市以及制度、体制等各个层面;以阐述城市发展脉络,探求其特点与个性,构成了城市史研究的基础。随之,研究者将城市置入区域或更广阔的空间环境、网络系统,研究城市与周边的关系、城市的定位以及城市间的比较等,拓宽了思路,开阔了视野。
[17] Anton C S, Wilson J.2017.

The evolution of coastal tourism destinations: A path plasticity perspective on tourism urbanization

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(1): 96-112.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1177063      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract Evolutionary and relational approaches to economic development are gaining ground in geography as a discipline, although in the subfield of tourism geography, their potential is only just becoming recognised. This article focuses on the evolution of mature tourism destinations, taking the path dependency concept forward from the notion of path creation into the new domain of path plasticity. Drawing on the notion of cultural political economy, we examine how tourism destinations can break with path dependency routines incrementally and move steadily towards different future paths, which may recast tourism in a different light in the overall “urban” context of the destination. Using a case study of a Mediterranean coastal destination on Catalonia's Costa Daurada, we explore the inter-tangled tourism and urban development processes in relation to the socio-spatial dimensions of urban change. The article argues for a wider range of social and cultural criteria in the analysis of tourism evolution – advocating the use of path plasticity and a cultural political economy approach – to offer an alternative perspective on shifting tourism situations, reflecting the inherently “urbanising” nature of tourism development in the traditional coastal resort context. It adds to the growing literature on governance and strategy-making in sustainable tourism.海岸旅游目的地的演变:旅游城市化的路径可塑性视角本文聚焦于成熟旅游目的地的演变,推进研究路径依赖理论,借鉴经济概念检验目的地如何能递增地破除路径依赖及稳步走向不同的未来路径;以地中海加泰罗尼亚黄金海岸为例,探索有关社会空间城市变化维度复杂的旅游和城市发展历程;主张用更广泛的社会文化标准分析演变,拥护路径可塑性和文化政治经济方法以提供改变旅游状况,反射在传统海滨度假区旅游发展固有城市化本质的替代观点,补充了在可持续旅游管理和战略制定方面的研究。
[18] Ashworth G, Page S J.2011.

Urban tourism research: Recent progress and current paradoxes

[J]. Tourism Management, 32(1): 1-15.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.02.002      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Urban tourism has remained a consistent theme in the expansion of tourism research since the 1980s and several seminal papers (e.g. Ashworth, 1989, 2003) have reviewed the state of research and its progress towards a greater recognition. This Progress in Tourism Management review article moves our understanding and knowledge of the research agendas within urban tourism by examining the paradoxes associated with such agendas thereby highlighting the need to adopt a less inward looking approach that interconnects with the wider domain of the social sciences, especially those of urban studies and the notion of world cities. We argue that understanding urban tourism will only progress by embracing these wider social science agendas so that tourism becomes integrated into these academic debates to progress the subject area.
[19] Baggio R.2008.

Symptoms of complexity in a tourism system

[J]. Tourism Analysis, 13(1): 1-20.

https://doi.org/10.3727/108354208784548797      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Tourism destinations behave as dynamic evolving complex systems, encompassing numerous factors and activities which are interdependent and whose relationships might be highly nonlinear. Traditional research in this field has looked after a linear approach: variables and relationships are monitored in order to forecast future outcomes with simplified models and to derive implications for management organisations. The limitations of this approach have become apparent in many cases, and several authors claim for a new and different attitude. While complex systems ideas are amongst the most promising interdisciplinary research themes emerged in the last few decades, very little has been done so far in the field of tourism. This paper presents a brief overview of the complexity framework as a means to understand structures, characteristics, relationships, and explores the implications and contributions of the complexity literature on tourism systems. The objective is to allow the reader to gain a deeper appreciation of this point of view.
[20] Balaguer J, Cantavella-Jordá M.2002.

Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: The Spanish case

[J]. Applied Economics, 34(7): 877-884.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840110058923      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper examines the role of tourism in the Spanish long-run economic development. The tourism-led growth hypothesis is confirmed through cointegration and causality testing. The results indicate that, at least, during the last three decades, economic growth in Spain has been sensible to persistent expansion of international tourism. The increase of this activity has produced multiplier effects over time. External competitivity has also been proved in the model to be a fundamental variable for Spanish economic growth. From the empirical analysis it can be inferred the positive effects on income that government policy, in the adequacy of supply as well as in the promotion of tourist activity, may bring about.
[21] Balaguer J, Pernías J C.2013.

Relationship between spatial agglomeration and hotel prices: Evidence from business and tourism consumers

[J]. Tourism Management, 36(3): 391-400.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.10.004      URL      摘要

In this paper we examine the relationship between number of local competitors and both the average and the dispersion of retail prices in urban hotels using a dataset from the metropolitan area of Madrid (Spain). By controlling for hotel characteristics and spatial factors, we obtained results for each of the days in one week. In line with predictions derived from the traditional monopolistic approach, empirical results consistently indicate that a greater density of competitors implies a lower average and less dispersion of local prices. Moreover, we found evidence which supports the idea that the effect of local agglomeration on average prices is particularly weaker at weekends. This, in turn, indirectly suggests that within the metropolitan area there is a greater degree of substitution in hotel locations for tourism consumers than for business consumers.
[22] Bardolet E, Sheldon P J.2008.

Tourism in archipelagos: Hawai and the Balearics

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(4): 900-923.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.07.005      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[23] Boschma R, Frenken K.2006.

Why is economic geography not an evolutionary science?

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 6: 273-302.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbi022      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

The paper explains the commonalities and differences between neoclassical, institutional and evolutionary approaches that have been influential in economic geography during the last couple of decades. For all three approaches, we argue that they are in agreement in some respects and in conflict in other respects. While explaining to what extent and in what ways the Evolutionary Economic Geography approach differs from the New Economic Geography and the Institutional Economic Geography, we can specify the value-added of economic geography as an evolutionary science.
[24] Bramwell B, Cox V.2009.

Stage and path dependence approaches to the evolution of a national park tourism partnership

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(2): 191-206.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802495782      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper examines two approaches to the study of the evolution of tourism partnerships over time: a stage approach and a combined path dependence and path creation approach. They represent alternative frameworks to explain temporal trends in partnership management and activities. Previous applications of the stage approach to tourism partnerships have emphasized common phases in the evolution of their organizational arrangements and management activities. Path dependence and path creation ideas have not been used previously to understand tourism partnerships. The path dependence approach highlights continuities and changes between past and current practices in the organization of partnerships and in their activities. It helps establish if partnerships fundamentally alter the policy environment and practical outcomes, and thus if they are path-creating and innovative, and it also assists in explaining the influences on these processes. The two approaches are used to evaluate a partnership established to reduce conflicts around tourism and conservation in a British national park. The case study illustrates the valuable but different insights that the stage and path dependence approaches offer for research on partnership working.
[25] Brau R, Lanza A, Pigliaru F.2007.

How fast are small tourism countries growing? Evidence from the data for 1980-2003

[J]. Tourism Economics, 13(4): 603-613.

https://doi.org/10.5367/000000007782696104      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper analyses the empirical relationship between growth, country size and tourism specialization by using a data set covering the period 1980 2003. It finds that tourism countries are small and grow significantly faster than all the other subgroups considered in the analysis. Tourism appears to be an independent determining factor for growth: controlling for initial per capita income and for trade openness does not weaken the positive correlation between tourism specialization and growth. Another finding of the paper is that small states are fast growing only when they are highly specialized in tourism. In contrast with some previous conclusions in the literature, smallness is not good for growth.
[26] Brouder P, Eriksson R H.2013.

Tourism evolution: On the synergies of tourism studies and evolutionary economic geography

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 43: 370-389.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2013.07.001      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Evolutionary Economic Geography (EEG) is receiving increasing interest from tourism scholars. EEG has proven to be a useful explanatory paradigm in other sectors, e.g., high-technology and creative sectors. There remains, however, a lack of theoretical discussion on evolutionary principles of economic change within relatively low-technology service sectors, of which tourism is a prime example. This paper introduces EEG to a wider tourism audience by presenting the core principles of EEG and how they relate to tourism studies. A selection of new research paths combining EEG and tourism studies is highlighted together with a number of latent research synergies which can progress both EEG and tourism studies. The paper calls for further empirical and conceptual engagement with EEG by tourism scholars.
[27] Brouder P, Ioannides D.2014.

Urban tourism and evolutionary economic geography: Complexity and co-evolution in contested spaces

[J]. Urban Forum, 25: 419-430.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-014-9239-z      URL      [本文引用: 4]      摘要

Urban tourism is an important research topic whether in mass tourism resort areas where tourism is the economic staple or in metropolitan areas where it is one (or more) development path(s) among many. Urban areas are dynamic and fast-paced environments but are also places where social and economic inequalities are most stark. Economic geography is one theoretical perspective through which researchers address urban tourism. The recent volutionary turn in economic geography is finding its way to tourism studies but has only been applied to a few urban tourism cases. This paper sets out the potential of evolutionary economic geography (EEG) as a conceptual framework for urban tourism studies. The analysis draws on recent studies of urban tourism from an evolutionary perspective to highlight the strengths of taking such an approach and a number of avenues yet to be explored are put forward. Urban tourism affects large numbers of residents and businesses as well as influencing labour flows, and so understanding the dynamic nature of its development paths is vital. Tourism development does not occur in a vacuum, and urban tourism is one area where the complexity of the tourism economy and its place within broader regional development strategies is most obvious. Under recent neoliberal policies of urban development, tourism has become closely associated with place-based competition and large capital investments. Urban tourism also enters the fray in matters of contested urban spaces with issues of local governance, such as privatisation of public space, moving increasingly to the fore. The paper concludes with a list of future approaches to evolutionary studies of urban tourism to broaden the scope beyond the dominant financial metrics of tourism success.
[28] Brouder P.2014.

Evolutionary economic geography: A new path for tourism studies

[J]. Tourism Geogrphies, 16(1): 2-7.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2013.864323      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

(2014). Evolutionary economic geography: a new path for tourism studies? Tourism Geographies: Vol. 16, New Research Paradigms in Tourism Geography, pp. 2-7. doi: 10.1080/14616688.2013.864323
[29] Buhalis D.2000.

Marketing the competitive destination of the future

[J]. Tourism Management, 21(1): 97-116. doi: 10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00095-3.

URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Destination marketing is increasingly becoming extremely competitive worldwide. This paper explains the destination concept and attempts to synthesise several models for strategic marketing and management of destinations. It provides an overview of several techniques widely used and illustrates examples from around the world. The paper also explains that marketing of destinations should balance the strategic objectives of all stakeholders as well the sustainability of local resources. Destinations need to differentiate their products and develop partnerships between the public and private sector locally in order to co-ordinate delivery. Taking advantage of new technologies and the Internet also enables destinations to enhance their competitiveness by increasing their visibility, reducing costs and enhancing local co-operation. Destination marketing must lead to the optimisation of tourism impacts and the achievement of the strategic objectives for all stakeholders.
[30] Cainelli G, Iacobucci D.2016.

Local variety and firm diversification: An evolutionary economic geography perspective

[J]. Journal of Economic Geography, 16: 1079-1100.

https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbv040      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The aim of this article is to investigate whether and how local agglomeration forces—related and unrelated variety—influence firm diversification. Using a large dataset of 5112 Italian manufacturing business groups for the year 2001, and estimating Tobit models, we show the ‘consistency’ between the patterns of firm diversification and that of the local system in which the firm is located. Specifically, firms located in local systems dominated by unrelated variety are more likely to show unrelated diversification patterns, while firms located in local systems dominated by related variety are more likely to show related diversification patterns. This supports the Evolutionary Economic Geography prediction of firm similarity ‘within’ the same local system, and firm heterogeneity ‘between’ different local systems.
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[32] David A, King C.2010.

National policy-makers for tourism in China

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(2): 295-314.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2009.09.004      URL      摘要

This paper reports on a study of the key players and institutional processes involved in national policy-making for China’s tourism sector since 1978. Using the concepts of ‘policy-oriented learning’ with ‘coordination’, it explores how the policy-makers have developed and implemented policy during a period of change in ideologies, organizational values and interests. In doing so it reveals how the fragmented nature of tourism and the fragmented power structure have meant that policy-making has been conducted by a variety of policy-makers, with a diversity of values and interests. It also shows how policy-oriented learning has allowed the policy-makers to succeed in a number of key areas, often with support from the state leaders.
[33] Essletzbichler J.2009.

Evolutionary economic geography, institutions, and political economy

[J]. Economic Geography, 85: 159-165.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01019.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In this response to MacKinnon et al. (2009 ), I argue that the theoretical development of evolutionary economic geographies is necessary in order to evaluate its unique contribution to an understanding of the uneven development of the space economy; that the distinction between evolutionary and institutional economic geographies is overdrawn; that the neglect of class, power, and the state reflect empirical rather than theoretical shortcomings of the evolutionary approach; and that there is significant potential overlap between evolutionary and political economy approaches.
[34] Frenken K, van Oort F, Verburg T.2007.

Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growth

[J]. Regional Studies, 41: 685-697.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343400601120296      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

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[36] Gill A M, Williams P W.2011.

Rethinking resort growth: Understanding evolving governance strategies in Whistler, British Columbia

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(4-5): 629-648.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.558626      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

This paper examines shifts in governance and management strategies that have occurred in response to endogenous and exogenous pressures on the mountain resort of Whistler, British Columbia. Since its inception in the mid-1970s, Whistler has pursued successive innovative management approaches that have emphasized growth. The most recent approach, integrated comprehensive sustainability planning, reflects a response to reaching the planned limits of resort development and suggests the emergence of a new “corporatist” governance model based on principles of sustainability. However, the complex effects associated with exogenous factors, such as the global economic crisis, hosting the Winter Olympic Games and the increasing political necessity of collaboration with local First Nations (indigenous peoples), raise questions concerning the degree to which Whistler is “locked-in” to the pro-growth model of governance. A path dependency framework is employed to explore and explain Whistler's evolving forms of governance. While briefly reviewing the earlier pro-growth path of Whistler's development, particular attention is paid to factors underlying the implementation and continuing challenges of the comprehensive sustainability governance model. Other issues explored include the viability of no-growth governance, the issues surrounding growth limits and the role of “The Natural Step” framework in tourism governance.
[37] Gill A M, Williams P W.2014.

Mindful deviation in creating a governance path towards sustainability in resort destinations

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 16(4): 546-562.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2014.925964      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Drawing on recent work in evolutionary economic geography, we focus on path creation as the framework for understanding how, in a resort destination context, the shift from growth models to ones based on principles of sustainability are evolving. Path creation emphasizes the power of human agency by recognizing the influence of entrepreneurs in shaping their environments. In the case study of the mountain resort of Whistler, British Columbia, we focus on one key aspect of the discourse surrounding the transition in governance from growth towards sustainability – that of affordable housing. The data are drawn from key informant interviews, participant observation and community document sources. The findings demonstrate how, through ‘mindful deviation’ from a growth model approach, Whistler entrepreneurs were able to utilize the collective agency of the community, generated in support of a new governance model based on principles of sustainability, to address the pressing need for affordable employee housing. This resulted from the opportunity to host the 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games. Through the efforts of both individual and collective human agency Whistler entrepreneurs were able to persuade the local Olympic organizing committee to conform to the resort's sustainability mandate in the development of athletes’ accommodation that would later serve as permanent resident-restricted housing. Overall, the study demonstrates the utility of employing a path creation lens as an analytical tool for understanding evolutionary change.
[38] Grabher G.2009.

Yet another turn? The evolutionary project in economic geography

[J]. Economic Geography, 85(2): 119-127.

https://doi.org/10.2307/40377291      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

What does the economic in economic geography stand for? For much of the 1990s up to the more recent past, answers to this pertinent question frequently referred to the embeddedness-network paradigm of the new economic sociology. At the same time, economic geography more and more drew inspiration, metaphors, and practices from an increasingly diverse range of schools. In terms of the disciplinary orientation, economic geography, on the one hand, remains firmly engaged with sociology, although interest seems to expand from the Granovetterian paradigm to the poststructuralism of Latour and Callon. On the other hand, economic geography's interest in heterodox economic geography is gaining new momentum. Above all, evolutionary approaches have attracted considerable attention that most recently culminated in a range of programmatic statements to develop a distinct evolutionary economic geography. It is these attempts to develop a collective agenda that Danny MacKinnon, Andrew Cumbers, Andy Pike, Kean Birch, and Robert McMaster take issue with. Subsequently, Ron Boschma and Koen Frenken, Jurgen Essletzbichler, and Geoffrey Hodgson comment on this "sympathetic critique." A rejoinder by Andy Pike and his coauthors concludes this symposium.
[39] Hilal E, Pieter T.2015.

Economic diversification of a single-asset tourism city: Evidence from Antalya

[J]. Current Issues in Tourism, 2(4): 1-18.

https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020349218009      URL      摘要

Economic diversification of a single-asset tourism city: evidence from Antalya. . ???aop.label???. doi: 10.1080/13683500.2015.1091806
[40] Ioannides D.2006.

Commentary: The economic geography of the tourist industry: Ten years of progress in research and an agenda for the future

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 8(1): 76-86.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616680500392515      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

At the 101st Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, the Recreation Tourism and Sport Specialty Group held a round-table session, exploring the inter-linkages of tourism research to economic geography. Panelists were asked to identify to what extent those geographers who are engaged in tourism research have benefited from advances in economic geography and simultaneously to s...
[41] Jacint B, José C P.2013.

Relationship between spatial agglome-ration and hotel prices: Evidence from business and tourism consumers

[J]. Tourism Management, 36: 391-400.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.10.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

In this paper we examine the relationship between number of local competitors and both the average and the dispersion of retail prices in urban hotels using a dataset from the metropolitan area of Madrid (Spain). By controlling for hotel characteristics and spatial factors, we obtained results for each of the days in one week. In line with predictions derived from the traditional monopolistic approach, empirical results consistently indicate that a greater density of competitors implies a lower average and less dispersion of local prices. Moreover, we found evidence which supports the idea that the effect of local agglomeration on average prices is particularly weaker at weekends. This, in turn, indirectly suggests that within the metropolitan area there is a greater degree of substitution in hotel locations for tourism consumers than for business consumers.
[42] King R.2002.

Towards a new map of European migration

[J]. International Journal of Population Geography, 8(2): 89-106.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ijpg.246      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Abstract Students of European migration have been hampered by the legacy of those established forms of migration which have been historically most important – settler migrations from Europe to the Americas, guest-worker migrations from the Mediterranean Basin to Northern Europe, and refugee migrations after the World Wars. We need to appreciate that many of the key questions that were asked to frame our understanding of the functioning of migration now have a very different array of answers from the largely economic ones which shaped our earlier analyses. Now, new mobility strategies are deployed to achieve economic and, importantly, non-economic objectives. In the new global and European map of migration, the old dichotomies of migration study – internal versus international, forced versus voluntary, temporary versus permanent, legal versus illegal – blur as both the motivations and modalities of migration become much more diverse. In offering an overview of the new typologies and geographies of international migration in Europe, this paper will be less a rigorous cartography than a qualitative exploration of a changing typology including migrations of crisis, independent female migration, migration of skilled and professional people, student migration, retirement migration and hybrid tourism–migration. These relatively new forms of migration derive from new motivations (the retreat from labour migrations linked to production), new space–time flexibilities, globalisation forces, and migrations of consumption and personal self-realisation. More than ever, this multiplex nature of human migration and spatial mobility demands an interdisciplinary approach, enriched wherever possible by comparative studies. Copyright 08 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
[43] Larsen J, Axhausen K W, Urry J.2006.

Geographies of social networks: Meetings, travel and communications

[J]. Mobilities, 1(2): 261-283.

https://doi.org/10.1080/17450100600726654      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The past decade has seen striking increases in travel and in communications at‐a‐distance through mobile phone calls, text messaging and emailing. People in prosperous societies are both travelling and communicating more to connect with absent others. People can travel, relocate and migrate and yet still be connected with friends and family members ‘back home’. So, increasingly, people who are near emotionally may be geographically very far away; yet they are only a journey, email or a phone call away. In this article we attempt to examine how such strong ties are spatially distributed and sustained through specific geographies of travel, meetings and communications. How often do strong ties meet, talk at‐at‐distance and write, and to what degree does distance determine regularity? To what extent are communications enhancing and/or substituting for physical travel? We examine in particular to what degree far‐flung ties and emotional networking at‐a‐distance are characteristic of many people other than the transnational ‘elites’ and ‘underprivileged’ migrants. We consider the notion of ‘network capital’.
[44] Larsen J, Urry J, Axhausen K.2007.

Networks and tourism, mobile social life

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1): 244-262.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2006.08.002      URL      [本文引用: 1]     

[45] Ma M, Hassink R.2013.

An evolutionary perspective on tourism area development

[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 41: 89-109.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.12.004      URL      摘要

To further develop our existing knowledge on the evolution of tourism areas, a more systematic and theoretical analysis is required. In the paper, we argue that the ongoing 'evolutionary turn' in economic geography could offer a powerful thrust to the theoretical discussion on tourism area evolution. In particular, two interlinked concepts derived from evolutionary economic geography, namely path dependence and coevolution are argued to bring the debate around the literature of tourism area life cycle substantially forward. We reinterpret the case of the Gold Coast, Australia with the explanation of two theoretical frameworks in the empirical context. The paper concludes by arguing for a combination of both a path dependence and coevolution perspective to analyze tourism area development.
[46] Ma M, Hassink R.2014.

Path dependence and tourism area development: The case of Guilin, China

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 16(4): 580-597.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2014.925966      URL      摘要

In recent years, tourism geographers have paid increasing attention to the concepts of ‘path dependence’, ‘path creation’ and ‘lock-in’ as key ingredients in constructing an evolutionary approach to tourism studies. The path dependence model of tourism area evolution discussed in this paper is used to explain the emergence, rise and decline of a tourism area, especially to figure out specific path dependence and lock-in of dominant tourism products and sectors. The model is tested by using it to explain the last 4002years of tourism area development in Guilin, China. It is found that the emergence of the Guilin tourism area was not only influenced by contingent events, but also basically rooted in its initial conditions. The findings show that over time Guilin experienced path preformation, path creation and development, path as a dynamic process, and a new path creation and development phase. Moreover, the general path-dependent process of evolution of the Guilin tourism area is embedded in the resource-based path dependence of tourism products and the institutional path dependence of tourism sectors. We conclude that the concept of path dependence requires further application and elaboration to understand the different path-dependent processes of tourism products, sectors or institutions in different tourism areas.
[47] MacKinnon D, Cumbers A, Pike A, et al.2009.

Evolution in economic geography: Institutions, political economy, and adaptation

[J]. Economic Geography, 85: 129-150.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2009.01017.x      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Economic geography has, over the past decade or so, drawn upon ideas from evolutionary economics in trying to understand processes of regional growth and change. Recently, some researchers have sought to delimit and develop an "evolutionary economic geography" (EEG), aiming to create a more systematic theoretical framework for research. This article provides a sympathetic critique and elaboration of this emergent EEG but takes issue with some aspects of its characterization in recent programmatic statements. While acknowledging that EEG is an evolving and pluralist project, we are concerned that the reliance on certain theoretical frameworks that are imported from evolutionary economics and complexity science threatens to isolate it from other approaches in economic geography, limiting the opportunities for cross-fertilization. In response, the article seeks to develop a social and pluralist conception of institutions and social agency in EEG, drawing upon the writings of leading institutional economists, and to link evolutionary concepts to political economy approaches, arguing that the evolution of the economic landscape must be related to processes of capital accumulation and uneven development. As such, we favor the use of evolutionary and institutional concepts within a geographical political economy approach, rather than the construction of some kind of theoretically separate EEG evolution in economic geography, not an evolutionary economic geography.
[48] Martin R, Sunley P.2015.

Towards a developmental turn in evolutionary economic geography?

[J]. Regional Studies, 49(5): 712-732

https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.899431      URL      [本文引用: 2]      摘要

Martin R. and Sunley P. Towards a developmental turn in evolutionary economic geography?, Regional Studies. Over the past couple of decades or so there have been increasing moves within evolutionary theory to move beyond the neo-Darwinian principles of variety, selection and retention, and to incorporate development. This has led to a richer palette of concepts, mechanisms and models of evolution and change, such as plasticity, robustness, evolvability, emergence, niche construction and self-organization, This opens up a different framework for understanding evolution. This paper sets out the main characteristics of the recent and ongoing ‘developmental turn’ in evolutionary theory and suggests how these might inform a corresponding ‘developmental turn’ in evolutionary economic geography.
[49] Martin R, Sunley P.2007.

Complexity thinking and evolutionary economic geography

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https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbm019      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Thus far, most of the work towards the construction of an evolutionary economicgeography has drawn upon a particular version of evolutionary economics, namelythe Nelson-Winter framework, which blends Darwinian concepts and metaphors(especially variety, selection, novelty and inheritance) and elements of a behaviouraltheory of the firm. Much less attention has been directed to an alternative conceptionbased on complexity theory, yet in recent years complexity theory has increasingly beenconcerned with the general attributes of evolutionary natural and social systems. In thisarticle we explore the idea of the economic landscape as a complex adaptive system.We identify several key notions of what is being called the new ‘complexity economics’,and examine whether and in what ways these can be used to help inform anevolutionary perspective for understanding the uneven development and adaptivetransformation of the economic landscape.
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International tourism and political science research

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https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(75)90032-8      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper points out that political scientists have been more negligent than other social researchers in investigating the phenomena of international mass tourism. They have not yet isolated tourism as a cluster of human activity from larger concerns such as general international relations, development, or foreign policy. There are three obvious levels of political activity related to tourism: politics of tourism in the marketplace, that is, in the metropolitan countries; politics and tourism in developing host nations; and ideological perception of international mass tourism. While there are other kinds or levels of politics involved in world tourism, these three deserve immediate political research.
[52] McDonald J R.2009.

Complexity science: An alternative world view for understanding sustainable tourism development

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(4): 455-471.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802495709      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Tourism research has generally taken a reductionist approach and has not effectively understood tourism as a stakeholder within a complex system (CS) of stakeholders. As a result, interpretations of sustainable tourism development (STD) are highly focused and sector-specific, thereby limiting understanding of the complex inter-relationships between tourism components and other components within a system. This paper explores complexity science as an alternative paradigm to understand why STD is problematic. It is argued that a new world view is required to understand the unpredictable world in which tourism operates. Complexity science and the associated chaos theory offer an alternative paradigm for viewing and understanding tourism phenomena. Viewing underlying influences on a CS in terms of the characteristics of complexity science, including the edge of chaos, strange attractors and conflict provides greater understanding of the system in which tourism operates. The second part of the paper discusses a framework, adapted from complexity science characteristics, to identify the complex inter-relationships between stakeholders with political, environmental, economic, social and cultural interests in an urban river context, the Swan River in Perth, Western Australia.
[53] Meekes J F, Buda D M, Roo G.2017.

Adaptation, interaction and urgency: A complex evolutionary economic geography approach to leisure

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 19(4): 525-547.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2017.1320582      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The purpose of this study is to examine the development path of evolutionary economic geography and to consider its future perspectives from the main studies conducted in this area Evolutionary economics has developed arguments about "routines" as the key concept. Further, methodological variety and openness, which are features of evolutionary economics, have been adopted in evolutionary... [Show full abstract]
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Converging divergences? An international comparison of the impact of globalization on industrial relations and employment careers

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[J]. Tourism Geographies, 3(4): 369-393.

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In this paper we review the complex links that exist between the tourism industry and processes of economic development. A brief overview of the industry's economic role at the international and national scale leads us into a discussion of local and regional involvement in the tourism industry. We emphasize the need to develop a more rigorous understanding of the evolving tourism industry and how it influences processes of local economic development. Following a review of the major theoretical frameworks that have been applied to help us understand these processes, we highlight the ways in which current attempts to understand the links between tourism and economic development are embracing the complexity of the industry and its influence on everyday lives. We advocate 'new' ways of seeing and studying the economics of tourism geography, ways that reflect the cultural turn in the 'new' economic geography, and the increasing significance of networks and new information and communication technologies. We argue that a willingness to embrace complexity is essential if we are to unpack the 'glocal' nature of tourism development processes.
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Exploring the evolution of tourism resorts

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2003.10.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

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This paper examines the process of tourism destination evolution and transformation. The focus is on how the relationships between organisations can act as a self-organising mechanism for the destination, with fluidity and change being a critical component in this process. This paper uses network theory to express these dynamics, and it emphasises structural features of architectural density and centrality. Most particularly, the network approach illustrates how groupings of small firms within interdependent systems can be self-governing, and show how this process assists the destination in building tacit knowledge for competitive advantage that resides in the network structure. The case context for this illustration is an icon tourism destination in New Zealand, the Waitomo Caves. This tourism destination has undergone significant transformation over the last 15 years, from its single Glowworm Cave attraction to an interdependent network involving underground adventure caving activities. Because of this transformation, it provides a distinctive context to explore these fluid network processes.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.005      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

61Our study analyze the characteristics and evolution of eco-efficiency at an individual destination.61Our study also empirically identifies the determinants of eco-efficiency.61The results indicate that the evolution of eco-efficiency undergoes four stages.61The determinants of eco-efficiency are in different directions and degrees.
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This study is an examination of the political objectives and probable consequences of the decision to open the People's Republic of China to mass tourism. Through personal interviews and other reports, this article traces the organizational and political dimensions of the abrupt reversal of nearly three decades of restricted and selective foreign access. The author found several anomalies: more “market” oriented cost structure than in most non- socialist developing nations; a hierarchy of tourist classes in a supposedly classless society; liberalization in tourism itineraries along with a freezing of contacts between tourist and Chinese. The article concludes that while China has reaped few tangible political benefits and has incurred some new political vulnerability with its new tourism policy, Chinese tourism has avoided many of the social and economic costs associated with tourism development elsewhere.
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[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(4): 936-957.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(98)00044-9      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper examines the state of the travel career ladder concept. It is argued that the research findings thought to support this concept are contradictory. In a sample of UK holidaymakers, it was found that while motives for taking vacations were consistent among all of the sample, those who had had a history of past tourism experience in a destination, or of similar types of holidays elsewhere, indicated a better match between wants and an ability to meet those desires. It seems that it is not a case of changing psychological needs resulting from past tourism experience as proposed by the travel career ladder model but rather a case of better meeting needs.
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The evolution of destinations: Towards an evolutionary and relational economic geography approach

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 16(4): 563-579.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2014.925965      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Analytical approaches from emergent paradigms in economic geography – namely, evolutionary economic geography (EEG) and relational economic geography (REG) – can help to advance and integrate extant research in tourism geography on destinations’ dynamics and organisation. Taking into account concepts such as human agency, contextuality and path dependence, the paper conceptualises local tourism destinations’ evolution as a complex, path- and place-dependent process that is determined by the action and interaction of stakeholders and their ability to adapt or create new paths, as well as to survive in response to local and global changes. Hence, it discusses the bidirectional effects between stakeholder practices and local tourism destinations’ evolutionary performance. Furthermore, it attempts to increase the understanding of how and why destinations change over time, which is valuable for policy formation and to improve local tourism destinations’ competitiveness and sustainability. All in all, the paper presents theoretical insights from EEG and REG to facilitate understanding of the mechanisms underpinning the evolution of destinations and examines the advantages of building an integrated evolutionary and relational approach. This also means an opportunity to integrate the geographical analysis of tourism destinations into mainstream thinking on economic geography.
[66] Shaw G, Williams A.2009.

Knowledge transfer and management in tourism organizations: An emerging research agenda

[J]. Tourism Management, 30(3): 325-335.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.02.023      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper reviews current research on knowledge management and knowledge transfer in the context of innovations. Specific attention is focussed on the integration of management perspectives into tourism research. The paper explores some of the key mechanisms and conduits of knowledge transfer within tourism. In doing so it explores such concepts as interlocking directorships, communities of practice, learning regions and labour mobility. There is also an emerging research agenda on knowledge management within tourism but progress is variable with most research being within the hotel sector, where a range of recent studies have examined aspects of knowledge transfer. The paper also draws attention to the need to give closer attention to the nature of innovations within tourism and to consider these in a knowledge management framework.
[67] Sheng L.2011.

Specialization versus diversification: A simple model for tourist cities

[J]. Tourism Management, 32(5): 1229-1231.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.09.012      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

By developing a simple general equilibrium structure, this paper compares the welfare effects of tourism specialisation and economic diversification in tourist cities. We discovered that tourist cities with limited carrying capacity easily suffer from side effects, particularly Dutch disease, when faced with rapid tourism growth. Therefore, such cities should actively use revenue that is generated from the booming tourism sector to pursue economic diversification for the sake of sustainable urban development.
[68] Sheng L, Tsui Y.2010.

Foreign investment in tourism: The case of Macao as a small tourism economy

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 12(2): 173-191.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616681003725219      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Using a modified international economics model, this paper first illustrates theoretically how side effects – economic, social and, particularly, political – caused by foreign investment in tourism can reduce the true benefits for host communities in the case of small tourism economies. The case study of Macao gives empirical evidence of the existence of side effects, thus contributing to the validity of the theory to a certain extent. It is argued that policy makers in small tourism economies should conduct foreign investment policies upon carefully assessing the impacts and in a broader socio-political framework.
[69] Shone M C, Ali Memon P.2008.

Tourism, public policy and regional development: A turn from neo-liberalism to the new regionalism

[J]. Local Economy, 23(4): 290-304.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02690940802408011      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

The use of tourism as a driver of economic development is widely acknowledged. In New Zealand and internationally, tourism is used overtly as a mechanism by which governments are able to address a variety of national, regional and local development objectives. In this paper, we present a critique of recent responses in New Zealand to the task of guiding tourism development from a strategic and collaborative sustainable development perspective. As argued in this paper, the roles and responsibilities of government in tourism were reinvented during the 1980s and 1990s. These changes, inspired by a neo-liberal political ideology to deregulate the New Zealand economy and to restructure the state sector and local government, ultimately included the tourism sector. More recently, however, public sector policy initiatives indicate a shift towards a more pro-active role for the local state (local and regional government) in managing tourism development. This shift, informed by a New Regionalism policy framework, anticipates a devolved tourism planning mandate that fosters longer-term strategic and collaborative planning of the sector in order to enhance the contribution of tourism to sustainable community wellbeing. We reflect on the likely effectiveness of a devolved tourism planning mandate and interrogate the role and potential of tourism to contribute to regional development, as framed by the political philosophies of the New Regionalism.
[70] Terhorst P, Erkus-Öztürk H.2015.

Urban tourism and spatial segmentation in the field of restaurants: The case of Amsterdam

[J]. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 9(2): 85-102

https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-09-2014-0074      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

ABSTRACT Purpose – This paper aims to show that the field of restaurants in Amsterdam, a tourist-historic city par excellence where tourism and daily life of locals are spatially intimately intertwined, is nevertheless segmented according to types of restaurants and their micro-geography (passers-by streets versus side streets and “hidden places” in the city). The kernel of the authors’ argument is that on the restaurant market, just as on markets of other cultural products, there is a lot of quality uncertainty because the standards of valuation are contested, differ between classes and lifestyle groups and vary in space and time. Design/methodology/approach – Case study is based on face-to-face interviews with tourists and restaurants in the summer of 2013 in Amsterdam. The restaurants to be interviewed were selected on the basis of a stratified sample of new start-ups, covering different neighbourhoods of Amsterdam. The interviews with restaurants and tourists were done on the basis of some open-ended and some semi-structured questions. Simple cross-tabulation tables with shares, Herfindahl index measures and a chi-square analysis were employed to make the analysis. Findings – Quality uncertainty in the restaurant market is higher for tourists than for locals. Restaurants that are strongly oriented to the tourism market are more found in the lower-middle segments of the market, are more located in passers-by streets, participate less in local networks and monitor other restaurants less than restaurants that are predominantly dependent on locals. Research limitations/implications – Due to the lack of interest of making interviews from tourists, the authors could only apply interviews to queuing tourists who have time to reply questions. The long queue was mainly in front of Van Gogh Museum. Madame Taussauds Museum and the boat tours queue was tried a lot but no success achieved for making interviews. The authors’ empirical research is based on interviews with tourists only, whereas gentrifiers are not interviewed at all. Practical implications – This paper enriches knowledge on food tourism on the one hand and the relation between urban tourism and gentrification on the other. Streets with a variety of different restaurants and shops are attractive to both locals and tourists. But the more attractive those streets become, the more property prices increase as a result of which their diversity and attractiveness particularly to locals declines. Social implications – This paper argues that mainstream economics does go very far in analysing the restaurant market. The authors argue that Bourdieu’s impressive works bring us further. That is why the authors prefer the concept of field to market because the concept of field implies power relations largely neglected in mainstream economic analysis. However, Bourdieu hardly pays attention to geographical space (only social space). By bringing geography in to the field of restaurants, the authors get a better grip on the geography of social construction of quality and why tourists have a peripheral position in the field vis-à-vis gentrifiers (or locals). Originality/value – Most of the literature on food tourism is strongly focussed on the demand side and neglects the supply side and is very empiristic, ignoring the analysis of how the restaurant market really works; it never wonders how it is possible that the restaurant market works, given the problem of quality uncertainty. This paper aims to link production and consumption in the restaurant market under conditions of quality uncertainty. The paper enlarges knowledge on the relation between urban tourism and gentrification in tourist-historic cities. Although both are spatially intertwined in those cities, the authors argue that there is a tendency to segmentation in the restaurant market.
[71] Williams A M, Baláž V.2002.

The Czech and Slovak Republics: Conceptual issues in the economic analysis of tourism in transition

[J]. Tourism Management, 23(1): 37-45.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00061-9      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

Research on tourism in the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe has tended to be fragmented and atheoretical. This paper explores five main conceptual issues related to production and consumption issues in tourism in the former Czechoslovakia in the course of transition: path dependency, property rights and privatisation, the nature of markets and regulation, re-internationalisation and globalisation, and the polarisation of consumption.
[72] Williams A M, King R, Warnes A, et al.2000.

Tourism and international retirement migration: New forms of an old relationship in southern Europe

[J]. Tourism Geographies, 2(1): 28-49.

https://doi.org/10.1080/146166800363439      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper examines the relationship between retirement migration and tourism in terms of the changing nexus of social relationships that are implicit in international mobility. Three main themes are investigated using data from field studies of British retired persons living in Tuscany, Malta, the Costa del Sol and the Algarve. First, the role of tourism in defining the search spaces of international retirement migrants is explored: insights are provided by the retirement strategies of the migrants, their prior connections with the destinations, and second home ownership. Second, amenity-led retirement migration encompasses complex issues of identity, consumption and peripatetic life styles. These are examined from the perspective of emergence of new forms of amenity-seeking retired life styles which traverse international boundaries. Third, retirement migrants become both potential participants in and recipients of 'visiting friends and relatives' (VFR) tourism. The scale of such tourism flows and their significance to the migrants are considered through both quantitative and qualitative data.
[73] Williams A M.2013.

Mobilities and sustainable tourism: Path-creating or path-dependent relationships?

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(4): 511-531.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.768252      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper advances understanding of tourism mobility trajectories and outcomes by discussing if the trajectory of tourism mobility is path-dependent or path-creating and, therefore, whether tourism is locked into existing sub-optimal pathways, or is there scope for creating significantly more sustainable future pathways. Tourism mobilities are understood in the context of overall shifts in corporeal mobilities, especially the impact of migration on networks and visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism. Four main tourism mobilities drivers are considered – technology, markets, cultures of mobility and state intervention – but their impact on mobilities is contested. The concepts of enfolded and substitutable mobilities, and of scapes and flows, are explained and used as intermediary concepts for engaging with the key relationships influencing tourism mobilities. Path dependency is shown to be backed by existing technologies, cultures and markets, together with deeply embedded scapes and substantial investments in existing infrastructure. Trends towards path creation are shown to depend on technological breakthroughs, including virtual tourism, alternative lifestyles bringing cultural change, market conditions brought about by possible sustained high oil prices, and state intervention leading to behavioural change. The concept of “path-dependent path-creation” is discussed along with the powerful influence of uncertainties and unknown future tipping-points.
[74] Wood K, House S.1991.

The good tourist: A worldwide guide for the green traveller

[M]. London, UK: Mandarin.

[本文引用: 1]     

[75] Zahra A, Ryan C.2007.

From chaos to cohesion—Complexity in tourism structures: An analysis of New Zealand's regional tourism organizations

[J]. Tourism Management, 28(3): 854-862.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.06.004      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper discusses chaos theory and provides a brief description of chaos and complexity theory. It notes past applications in tourism research with specific reference to the work of Russell and Faulkner relating to Australia's Gold Coast. In this paper, the concept is discussed with reference to regional tourism organizations in New Zealand. Both cases provide examples of complexity, attractors and dampeners, and feedback loops that limit change. It is suggested that one important contribution of chaos and complexity theory is that it provides a language to help identify the components of, and change within, a social system. The paper concludes that inherent in a complex system lies the notion that truly complex social phenomena embrace the linear, stable and predictable along with change, the dynamic, new, and unpredictable and even symbolic meaning.
[76] Zhang C, Xiao H.2014.

Destination development in China: Towards an effective model of explanation

[J]. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(2): 214-233.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.839692      URL      [本文引用: 1]      摘要

This paper addresses the dynamics of the evolution of a nature-based destination in China. Based on longitudinal studies in Zhangjiajie (Hunan Province), it focuses on the roles of institutions in tourism development in China, demonstrating the centrality of institutions and governments in fostering destination development through policy orientations, attracting investments and regulations in their capacity as producers, protectors and promoters of desired processes of change. It describes a five-stage development process from Exploration, through Starting and via Fluctuation and Acceleration to the current stage of Transition leading towards a Destination seeking Better Service Quality. The study, by incorporating institutions as a driving force, develops an RICI model (Resource, Institution, Capital and Innovation) accounting for destination development in China. The key role of policies implemented by local governments and the roles of institutions are critical in the process of its development, especially in the earlier stages, contrasting with many western countries, where the private sector and central government tend to dominate. The paper notes the role of inter-institution rivalries, and the impact of those rivalries on sustainable development. It is suggested that the proposed model could be empirically verified and tested in other cultural or regional destination development contexts.

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